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There are decisions at the end of life that currently are relevant as humanistic values. Respect for human life and dignity are part of human rights. The National Academy of Medicine of Mexico declares its posture about end-of-life decisions that include treatment refusal, limitation of the therapeutic effort, advance directives and palliative sedation, among others, with the purpose to favor a peaceful death.

Hay decisiones relacionadas con el final de la vida que actualmente son relevantes como valores humanísticos. El respeto y la dignidad de la vida humana están incluidos en los derechos humanos. La Academia Nacional de Medicina de México declara su postura acerca de las decisiones sobre el final de la vida que incluyen rechazo a un tratamiento, limitación del esfuerzo terapéutico, voluntad anticipada y sedación paliativa, entre otros, con la finalidad de propiciar una muerte en paz.

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INTRODUCTION: Because of their rarity in men, systemic lupus erythematous and lupus nephritis (LN) are poorly understood in men. Our aim was to analyze the clinical presentation and course of histology-proven systemic lupus erythematous and LN in males and to determine the risk factors for progression to end-stage renal disease. METHODS: Fifty patients from 2 historical cohorts in Spain (Hospital 12 de Octubre) and Uruguay were retrospectively analyzed and compared with a female cohort matched for age and disease characteristics. RESULTS: The median age at the time of renal biopsy was 27 years (range, 8-79 years). The main forms of presentation were nephrotic syndrome in 26 of 50 patients (52%), and class IV LN in 34 of 50 (68%). After treatment, 21 patients (45.6%) achieved complete renal remission. During follow-up, 12 patients required renal replacement therapy, and 3 patients died of infectious causes. When patients who required renal replacement therapy were compared with those who did not require it, several parameters showed significant differences (P < 0.05) at the time of renal biopsy: estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 ml/min, hypertension, hypoalbuminemia, and concomitant visceral involvement (neurologic, cardiovascular, and/or pulmonary). In the multivariate analysis, only estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 ml/min persisted as a risk factor for progression to end-stage renal disease. When compared with a cohort of female patients with LN, there were no significant differences in remission or renal survival. DISCUSSION: LN in males usually presents as nephrotic syndrome, and type IV LN is the most frequent form. An estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 ml/min at the time of renal biopsy is associated with poor renal outcomes. There were no differences in remission or progression of LN in males when compared with a cohort of female patients with LN.

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The importance to assess in a comprehensive way the cognitive, emotional, personal and social features of the students entering medical school is recognized nowadays in order to select from the candidates, not just those with high cognitive abilities, but also the ones with a vocation and interest in the study of this science. These are characteristics that should be specially sought among the students of high performance academic groups. In the Department of Medicine, as it is in some other departments at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), there is a special plan called High Academic Performance Program (PAEA), which aims to test innovative teaching models to generate health resources able to operate in special working conditions. Medicine students enrolled at the PAEA have a particular schedule which includes, in addition to the program established at the regular curriculum, some other specific activities, meaning greater demand for them. These special training includes activities such as: early introduction to research labs, based-problem learning, methodology workshops, introductory course in computing, and personalized assistance from academic tutors. It is because of these peculiar features, that, with this study, we aim to determine the profile of the students of the PAEA from the analysis and comparison of the candidates' characteristics. Materials and methods This was a comparative cross-sectional study that included all the first entry students at the Department of Medicine who applied to enter the selection process of the PAEA at the 2009-2010 period. These candidates were required to ask voluntarily to be included in the selection process to be part of PAEA, and to demonstrate at least a high school grade of 8.5, and to complete the assessment instruments. For this study, the assessment instruments used were: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) sub-scale of abstract reasoning, and a semi-structured interview designed specifically for this evaluation. The variables considered for this research were: • Sociodemographic characteristics: All those features that define the economical, social and demographic situation of a person or population. • Academic background: All the information of studies and activities that the student has done throughout his/her school years. • Vocational features: Preferences, perceptions and attitudes of the student for his/her own autonomous choice of career or profession. • Personality traits: Generalized and focused mental systems that have the ability to convert external stimuli to guide different forms of behaviors. • Abstract reasoning: Mental process that allows people to solve logic problems, forecasting and planning. Data obtained from the instruments were analyzed with descriptive statistics, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, cluster analysis and factor analysis. Results The study included 194 candidates (100 of them were accepted to be included at the PAEA). In general, the studied population had a greater percentage of women (61.86%) and a mean age of 18.35 + 1.5 years old. Around a quarter of this population studied high school at Escuela Nacional Preparatoria (National High School), but it was observed that the highest percentage (20.1%) of students accepted to enter PAEA had the antecedent of being graduate from private high schools with high academic standards. This last finding is important since the candidates from these private schools are students who not only have access to a history of multiple academic and extracurricular activities, but they also come with certain academic stimulation, and so, it is expected that they have developed strategies to contend in competitive environments. The average grade of high school was lightly higher for the group of accepted students (9.27+0.41) than for those not accepted (9.13+0.47). Compared to those who were not accepted, more students in the group of accepted candidates were fluent in English (46.91%), French (1 4.43%) or other foreign language (3.61 %) besides Spanish. The personality profile obtained from the MMPI-2 was similar for both groups of candidates, accepted and not accepted. It was determined that accepted students were characterized by: having high energy and strength to achieve their goals, being sociable but with little commitment to the others, questioning the statu quo, being creative. However, within this group it was also observed that there was a tendency to manipulate other people to get what they wanted and that some of their behaviors may be governed by impulsivity. The group of candidates not accepted to the Program seemed to have the same personality features with greater energy, which could lead them into disarray. Characteristics such as social introversion and hypochondriasis have been aspects of interest in some previous studies. Both personality features have revealed significant long-term predictors, whether to have an adequate academic performance (associated to low levels of both social introversion and hypochondriasis) or to develop any psychopathology (related to high levels of social introversion and hypochondriasis). For this population, professional interests were directed towards the medical practice, while teaching was not considered as a priority interest (but it prevailed in the group of not accepted). Promotion of humanitarian aid discriminated those accepted candidates. At least 10% of the students in the group of accepted candidates said that they could see themselves having a successful future. The difference in interests within these students reflects distinct experiences in each group, and therefore dissimilar life projects that make them having diverse perspectives of present and future circumstances. The fact that the group of approved candidates has high motivation for success is consistent with their acceptance to be part of a group of high performance. However, it may be advisable to promote a training throughout their social awareness in order to enable them to have an overall performance of their profession. The best predictors of acceptance were: the rating of the overall review of knowledge (an exam that every first entry student does at the beginning of Medicine School) and the score of DAT's abstract reasoning, which correlated with r = 0.485. It is important to say that neither the grade of high school nor the age were good predictors to be accepted to PAEA. Conclusions Since PAEA seeks to select students with characteristics and skills that enable them to function in the field of medicine under a high rate of academic achievement, it is expected that, as it was confirmed in this research, accepted students where those who had greater cognitive abilities, who were fluent in other languages, with interest focused on successful clinical practice and research, and with less concern about socio-economical aspects of their environment. However, there are still many questions regarding the defining characteristics of this population and the way these features will impact their education. It is necessary to continue characterizing and studying the groups of students entering PAEA, and follow up their outcome in order to determine if the evaluated aspects have an influence on their academic performance during medical school.

En la Facultad de Medicina, como en algunas otras de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, existe un Programa de Alta Exigencia Académica (PAEA), el cual busca probar métodos de enseñanza novedosos para formar recursos capaces de desarrollarse en condiciones especiales de trabajo. Esto se lleva a cabo por medio de un programa en que el alumno lleva, además de las actividades regulares establecidas en el currículum de la carrera, algunas otras planeadas específicamente para estos grupos y que demandan mayores exigencias para los estudiantes que forman parte de ellos. Dadas estas características del PAEA en la Facultad de Medicina, es prioritaria una evaluación integral de los candidatos que formarán parte del programa, la cual debe incluir aspectos cognoscitivos, emocionales, personales y sociales. Por ello, el objetivo de este estudio fue establecer el perfil de los alumnos del PAEA a partir del análisis y la comparación de las características de la población de candidatos que se postularon para ingresar a este programa durante la promoción 2009-2010. Material y métodos Estudio transversal comparativo en el cual se incluyó a todos aquellos estudiantes de primer ingreso (ciclo 2009-2010) que solicitaron de manera voluntaria ingresar al proceso de selección del PAEA, que tuvieron por lo menos 8.5 de promedio en el bachillerato y que completaron los instrumentos de evaluación. Se aplicaron: el Inventario Multifásico de la Personalidad Minnesota-2 (MMPI-2), la subescala de razonamiento abstracto del Test de Aptitudes Diferenciales (DAT), y una entrevista semiestructurada diseñada expresamente para esta evaluación. Los datos obtenidos se manejaron con estadísticos descriptivos, regresión lineal múltiple, regresión logística, análisis de clusters y análisis factorial. Resultados Se incluyó a 194 aspirantes, de los cuales fueron aceptados 100, con un predominio en la población femenina (61.86%) y una media de edad de 1 8.35 ± 1.5. Una cuarta parte de la población estudiada provenía de las Escuelas Nacionales Preparatorias, pero el mayor porcentaje de aceptación (20.1%) para ingresar al PAEA se observó entre los alumnos egresados de escuelas preparatorias privadas de alto nivel académico. El perfil de personalidad obtenido por medio del MMPI-2 fue similar para los candidatos aceptados y los no aceptados. Los alumnos aceptados para ingresar al PAEA se caracterizaron por: presentar una gran energía y consolidar sus metas, ser sociables pero con poco compromiso con los demás, cuestionar el status quo y ser creativos; no obstante, se observó una tendencia a manipular a los demás para conseguir sus fines. Algunas de sus conductas pueden estar regidas por impulsividad. Los alumnos no aceptados presentaron estas características con una mayor energía que pudiera llevarlos a la desorganización. Los intereses profesionales se dirigieron hacia la práctica médica. Aunque la docencia no fue considerada como un interés, predominó entre los no aceptados, mientras que la promoción de ayuda humanitaria discriminó a los aceptados. Los mejores predictores de la aceptación fueron la calificación del examen general de conocimientos y el razonamiento abstracto, los cuales se correlacionaron con r=0.485. Ni la edad, ni el promedio de bachillerato fueron buenos predictores en cuanto a la aceptación para entrar al PAEA. Conclusiones Dado que el PAEA busca seleccionar alumnos con características y habilidades que les permitan desempeñarse en el campo de la Medicina con un ritmo de alto rendimiento académico, resulta esperable que, tal como se corroboró en esta investigación, se aceptaran alumnos con una mayor competencia cognoscitiva, con dominio de otras lenguas, con intereses centrados en la práctica clínica exitosa y en la investigación, y con menor preocupación por aspectos socioeconómicos de su entorno. Sin embargo, será preciso continuar perfilando y estudiando a los estudiantes de este programa con el fin de determinar aquellos rasgos que influyen en su desempeño durante la licenciatura.

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BACKGROUND: Infective endocarditis (IE) is more frequent in patients on chronic haemodialysis (CHD) than in the general population and vascular access is the more frequent identified port of its entry. According to experimental and clinical studies the vascular access may also interfere with the treatment of IE. To improve the treatment of IE in CHD, patients were temporarily switched to peritoneal dialysis (PD) after the removal of the vascular access. In this preliminary report the outcome of IE in those CHD patients switched to PD is compared with the outcome in IE patients who remained on CHD. METHODS: All cases of IE that occurred during a 5 year period were retrospectively analysed. The Duke criteria for IE were used for diagnosis. All patients underwent transoesophageal echocardiography. All patients were treated with the same schedule of antibiotic treatment. The vascular access of a patient was removed when it was judged to be the source of infection. RESULTS: Twenty-one patients were studied. Twelve patients had been temporarily switched to PD after the diagnosis of IE and nine patients had remained on CHD treatment. There were not statistically significant differences between the two groups with respect to demographic data, comorbid diseases and the frequency of Staphylococcus aureus as the causative germ. In-hospital mortality was 8.3% in patients switched to PD and 55.5% in patients maintained on HD (P: 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: The data presented here suggest that the high mortality of IE in CHD patients may also be associated with the vascular access necessary for HD. If these results are confirmed by prospective studies with higher numbers of patients, PD could turn out to have a place in the treatment of IE in CHD patients.

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La eutanasia y el suicidio asistido son temas de inevitable controversia por la diversidad de elementos que intervienen en su discusión. A las experiencias y valores personales, las creencias religiosas, los aspectos culturales y los aspectos legales, hay que agregar las emociones que suscitan estos temas y las ideas profundamente arraigadas que influyen en los puntos de vista de los individuos, incluso de manera inconsciente. Sin embargo, la necesidad de revisar y reflexionar sobre las valoraciones éticas y las leyes que regulan estas prácticas es impostergable en muchos países ante el aumento de padecimientos que entrañan sufrimientos devastadores para los enfermos. Tal es el caso de la esclerosis lateral amiotrófica (ELA), una enfermedad neuromuscular que provoca una parálisis progresiva, fallas respiratorias y la muerte entre los tres y cinco años después del diagnóstico.1 Las opciones de tratamiento para este padecimiento son sólo paliativas y su curso natural suele producir la muerte por asfixia. En los últimos años los pacientes con ELA han aparecido de manera repetida en el debate sobre la muerte asistida porque muchos consideran preferible adelantar su muerte que llegar a un final que significa vivir con un terror adicional....

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La práctica médica ante la muerte puede ser comprendida como el resultado de dos procesos que confluyen. Por un lado, el desarrollo de la tecnología médica que ha significado un importante apoyo para los médicos, pero también los ha llevado a interesarse menos en el aspecto subjetivo de sus pacientes. Por otro lado, la transformación de las actitudes de la sociedad ante la muerte, hasta llegar a la forma actual de enfrentarla en que predomina la negación. En la actualidad, los médicos no responden a las necesidades emocionales de sus pacientes en un momento tan crítico como es el final de su vida. Los estudiantes de medicina deberían recibir una formación que los prepare para estar cerca de sus pacientes cuando descubren que la curación es imposible.

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En este artículo se revisan las consideraciones éticas de dos tipos de clonación en humanos: la de células embrionarias, sin llegar al nacimiento de un individuo y la que está dirigida a crear un nuevo ser humano. Se analizan por separado las ventajas implicadas en estas dos formas de clonación y se discuten las objeciones desde un punto de vista ético. Las repercusiones del nacimiento por clonación son consideradas desde una perspectiva psicoanalítica. Se concluye que la clonación de células embrionarias puede ser justificable, mientras que no lo es la clonación como opción reproductiva.

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