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A preliminary dietary exposure assessment for aflatoxins (AFs; AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2) was conducted to evaluate the potential carcinogenic risks for the Brazilian population. AF concentration data in food were obtained from analysis reports issued by the Central Public Health Laboratory of the Federal District (LACEN-DF) and from published work. Food consumption and body weight (bw) data were obtained from a national survey conducted in 2008/2009. Cancer risks arising from exposure to aflatoxins were assessed using the carcinogenic potency of AFs estimated by the JECFA, and hepatitis B virus prevalence in the Brazilian population. Additionally, margins of exposure (MOE) were also calculated for the various scenarios investigated. A total of 942 food samples were analysed for AFs in the Federal District between 2002 and 2011 with 4.5% of them being positive for at least one aflatoxin (LOQ = 2 µg kg(-1)). The highest percentage of contamination was found in peanuts (8.1%) and Brazil nuts (6.0%), with mean levels ranging from 6.7 µg kg(-1) in peanut products to 36.9 µg kg(-1) in Brazil nuts. Most of the studies conducted elsewhere in Brazil found similar results. Total AF intake for the total Brazilian population and high consumers of food relevant for AF contamination in Brazil (upper bound; samples < LOQ = 0.5 LOQ) were 6.8 and 27.6 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1), respectively. Cancer risk reached 0.0753 cancers year(-1) per 10(5) individuals for the total population and 0.3056 cancers year(-1) per 10(5) individuals for high consumers. MOE reached 25 and 6 for the total population and high consumers, respectively, indicating a potential risk for consumers. Aflatoxins are genotoxic carcinogens, and government action should be maintained and continuously improved in order to guarantee that human exposure levels are kept as low as possible.

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Este é um estudo transversal realizado em 2008/2009 no Distrito Federal com 997 participantes, que responderam a um questionário estruturado com 27 perguntas. Os entrevistados foram categorizados em cinco grupos: funcionários de drogaria (FD), funcionários de hospital (FH), pacientes de drogaria (PD), pacientes de hospital (PH) e outros. Os entrevistados do grupo FD foram os que mais afirmaram perceber sempre a presença do profissional farmacêutico na drogaria (35%, p<0.001). Somente 28,1% dos respondentes afirmaram saber o que é interação medicamentosa, com frequência maior para FD (p<0,0001) e PH (p=0,0138); destes, 37,3% descreveram corretamente o termo. Mais de 80% dos participantes leem sempre ou às vezes a bula, mas os do grupo PH são os que menos compreendem seu conteúdo. A frequência do uso de medicamentos sem receita médica foi maior entre os FD (p=0,0033) e menor entre os PH (p<0.0001). Os medicamentos considerados de maior risco pelos participantes foram inibidores de apetite, antibióticos e remédios para dormir e mais de 1/3 dos entrevistados consideraram que todos os medicamentos" fazem mal a saúde". A maioria guarda os medicamentos em gavetas e armários e somente 13% os mantêm fora do alcance de crianças. O estudo sugere que o ambiente, a atividade profissional e a situação socioeconômica afetam as percepções e atitudes com relação ao uso de medicamentos.

This is a transversal study conducted in 2008/2009 in the Brazilian Federal District with 997 participants who answered a structured questionnaire with 27 questions. The participants were classified as drugstore workers (DW), hospital workers (HW), drugstore patients (DP), hospital patients (HP) and others. Individuals in the DW group were those who most perceived the presence of the pharmacist in the drugstore (35%, p<0.001). Only 28.1% of the participants confirmed to know the definition of medicament interaction, with the highest frequency among the FD (p<0.0001) e PH (p=0.0138); from those, 37.3% described the term correctly. Over 80% of the interviewers always or sometimes read medication information sheets, but individuals in the HP group are the ones who least understand their content. The frequency of medicament use without prescription was higher among the DW (p=0.0033) and lower among the HP (p<0.0001). Appetite suppressants, sleeping pills and antibiotics were considered the most risky medicaments and over 1/3 of surveyed individuals considered all medication "harmful to health". Most individuals keep medication in drawers and closets, and only 13% keep them in places unreachable by children. The study suggests that the ambient, the professional activity, and socioeconomic status affect the attitudes and perception regarding the use of medication.

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In this study ready-to-eat food samples were collected in the production line of the university restaurant of the University of Brasilia, Brazil, which serves non-vegetarian and vegetarian meals daily. Samples were analysed for the presence of ten organophosphorus insecticides (OPs) by GC/FPD, after extraction with ethyl acetate and anhydrous sodium sulfate (LOQ = 0.002 mg kg(-1)), and for dithiocarbamate fungicides, as CS(2), using the spectrophotometric method (LOQ = 0.05 mg kg(-1)). About 43% of the 175 samples analysed contained at least one OP compound at levels up to 1.83 mg kg(-1). Methamidophos was the compound most detected (37.7%), present in most of the soup, soybean and salad samples. No OP residues were found in fruit juice, beans and bran rice samples. The cumulative acute intake of OPs was estimated using methamidophos and acephate as index compounds (IC). The total cumulative intake represented 9.1% and 47.7% of the methamidophos ARfD for the non-vegetarian and vegetarian diets, respectively. When acephate was used as IC, the total intakes represented 20.7% and 116% of the ARfD for the non-vegetarian and vegetarian diets, respectively. Dithiocarbamates were detected in 70% of the 177 samples analysed, at levels up to 0.51 mg kg(-1) CS(2); all salad samples were positive and no residues were found in fruit juice. The chronic intake of dithiocarbamates represented 8.6 and 8.9% of the ADI (mancozeb) for the vegetarian and non vegetarian diets, respectively.

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A probabilistic estimation of the exposure of the Brazilian population to the dithiocarbamate pesticides was performed using the Monte Carlo Risk Assessment program (MCRA 3.5). Residue data, as CS2, for 3821 samples were obtained from the Brazilian national monitoring program on pesticide residues and from the monitoring program conducted in the Distrito Federal on rice, beans and nine fruits and vegetables. Food consumption data were obtained from a Brazilian household budget survey conducted between 2002 and 2003. Processing factors for washing, peeling or cooking were applied to the residues found in the crops. Daily intakes at the highest percentiles for the general population reached a maximum of 2.0 microg CS2/kg body weight per day (upper band of the 95% confidence interval at P99.99). Tomato, rice, apple and lettuce were the commodities which contributed most to the intake. Based on the registered uses and the toxicological profile of dithiocarbamates, the risk from exposure was evaluated assuming that all residues came from the use of ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate (EBDC) or that a fraction of it came from the use of propineb. For this last scenario, a cumulative risk assessment was conducted. In the first scenario, the highest intake reached up to 11.9% EBDC ADI for the general population and up to 31.1% ADI for children. When 30% of the residues were considered as coming from propineb use, the values were 15.2% and 39.7% ADI, respectively.

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In the present study, the cumulative exposure of 25 acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibiting pesticides through the consumption of nine fruits and vegetables by the Brazilian population was assessed. Food consumption data were obtained from a household budget survey conducted in all Brazilian states from July 2002 to June 2003. Residue data from 4001 samples were obtained from the Brazilian national monitoring program on pesticide residues. Relative potency factors (RPF) were calculated with methamidophos or acephate as index compounds (IC), using BMD(10) or NOAEL for AChE inhibition, mostly in rat brain, obtained from national and international pesticide evaluations. Monocrotophos and triazophos, in addition to aldicarb, had the highest calculated RPF in any scenario. The exposure to AChE inhibiting pesticides for the general population at P99.9, represented 33.6% of the ARfD as methamidophos and 70.2% ARfD as acephate. The exposure calculated as acephate could exceed the ARfD at the upper bound of the 95% confidence interval for this percentile. Exposure for children aged up to 6 years were, on average, 2.4 times higher than the exposure for the general population. Tomato represented about 67% of the total intake of AChE inhibiting pesticides. The highest calculated equivalent residues in tomato, which drove most of the estimated intakes at the high percentiles, were related to the illegal use of monocrotophos and triazophos in this crop.

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Dithiocarbamates are a non-systemic group of pesticides widely used to protect crops from fungal diseases. The current methodology used by monitoring laboratories to determine dithiocarbamates in food involves the analysis of CS(2) generated after hydrolysis of the compound present in the sample. This method does not identify the origin of the CS(2) detected, which may or may not be related to the presence of pesticides leading to a potential overestimation of the dietary dithiocarbamate intake. In this paper, 520 food samples (papaya, banana, apple, strawberry, orange, potato, tomato, rice and dry beans) collected in the local market of the Federal District, Brazil, were analyzed for dithiocarbamate content. Detectable levels (> or =10.10 mg/kg CS(2)) were found in 60.8% of the samples, with the highest levels (up to 3.8 mg/kg) found in strawberry, papaya and banana. No residues were found in rice (polished) and only one dry bean sample had detectable levels of the fungicides. Detectable residues were found in the pulp of banana, papaya (including the seeds) and orange (50-62% of the analyzed samples). An exposure assessment, based on dithiocarbamate levels detected in the food crops analyzed in this study, confirms that the intake of dithiocarbamates through food consumption in the country does not represent a health risk to consumers, i.e., the estimated daily intake is less than the acceptable daily intake. Furthermore, the implementation of more selective methodologies to individually analyze these compounds in food monitoring programs in Brazil is not necessary.

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Samples of herbal medicine used in Brazil were analyzed, after nitric digestion, for the content of cadmium, mercury and lead, by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Fifteen samples of ginkgo biloba (Ginkgo biloba), 13 of celastraceae (Maytenus ilicifolia), 14 of cascara buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana), 13 of eggplant (Solanum melongena), 15 of horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), 13 of Brazilian ginseng (Pffafia glomerata), 17 of centella asiatic (Hydrocotyle asiatica), 13 of guarana (Paullinia cupana), 12 of artichoke (Cynara scolymus) and five samples of chlorella (Chlorella pyrenoidosa) were analyzed. Cadmium, mercury and lead were not detected (limit of quantifications of 0.20, 0.01 and 2.0 mg/kg, respectively) in any sample of artichoke, eggplant and guarana. Cadmium was found in samples of the other medicinal herbs at levels up to 0.74 microg/g and mercury up to 0.087 microg/g. Three samples of horse chestnut contained 153, 156 and 1480 microg Pb/g, while the highest concentration found in the other samples analyzed was 22 microg Pb/g. The estimated lead intake through the consumption of horse chestnut reached 440% of Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI), and might be of concern to consumers if the medicine was taken on a long-term basis. Cadmium and mercury exposure through the herbal medicines does not appear to be of health concern.

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The objective was to conduct a dietary risk assessment of pesticides registered in Brazil up to 14 January 2004. The theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) was calculated for 275 compounds using the Brazilian maximum residue limits (MRL) and food consumption. The chronic dietary risk assessment was conducted by comparing the TMDI with the Brazilian acceptable daily intake (ADI) or, when not available, with the ADI from other sources. The TMDI was higher than the ADI (%ADI>100) in at least one Brazilian region for eight pesticides, including five organophosphorus insecticides. For these compounds, the higher TMDI (expressed as %ADI) ranged from 140 (metam sodium) to 14,000 (methyl bromide). Rice, beans, citrus and tomato were the commodities that contributed most to ingestion. Change in pesticide use patterns and the establishment of ADIs by the Brazilian government have reduced the number of compounds for which the TMDI exceeded the ADI in the last 4 years. Risk assessment methodology based on TMDI calculation, however, is conservative as it assumes that the food supply is always treated with all the registered pesticides for that crop and that one always consumes food containing residues at the tolerance level. Furthermore, for six compounds with TMDI exceeding the ADI, a more realistic estimation of the pesticide daily intake was conducted using monitoring residue data from the Brazilian National Pesticide Residue Program. For these compounds, the higher refined intakes ranged from 2% (dimethoate) to 180% (fenitrothion) of the ADIs. The implementation of a national pesticide residue monitoring programme by the government was important to allow the refinement of the risk assessment. However, adequate daily food consumption data are still needed to assess better the public health risk to Brazilian consumers from food produced from crops treated with pesticides.

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Dithiocarbamates are a class of fungicides extensively used in many crops worldwide. The current residue definition of dithiocarbamates in food for compliance with maximum residue limits, at national and international levels, is total residues arising from the use of any or each dithiocarbamate fungicide, determined as CS(2). The analytical method most frequently used to analyze dithiocarbamate residues in food for monitoring purposes was proposed more than 30 years ago. In this method, total dithiocarbamates are decomposed to CS(2), which is purified and reacted with a cupric reagent. The yellow complex formed is quantified by spectrophotometry. In this paper, a new reaction system for the purification and complexation of CS(2) is proposed. The new system is less fragile than the traditional design, is easier to assemble, and allows for a higher sample throughput, in addition to being of low cost. Recovery of added mancozeb, thiram, or ziram (0.15-8.0 mg/kg) in rice, beans, apple, banana, orange, papaya, tomato, cucumber, and potato ranged from 82 to 120%, with relative standard deviations from 0 to 10% (n = 3 or 5). Analysis of apple, tomato, and papaya samples with field-incurred dithiocarbamate residues showed comparable results using both the traditional and the new reaction systems.

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OBJECTIVE: To conduct a chronic dietary risk assessment of the pesticides registered in Brazil up until 1999. METHODS: The Theoretical Maximum Daily Intake (TMDI) for each pesticide was calculated using the Brazilian maximum residue limits and food consumption data from IBGE, the Brazilian Statistical Institute. The risk characterization was done comparing the TMDI with the acceptable daily intakes (ADI) from other countries and from the Codex Alimentarius. RESULTS: The TMDI was higher than the ADI (%ADI>100) at least in one Brazilian metropolitan region for 23 pesticides. Sixteen compounds are organophosphate insecticides, with methyl parathion having the TMDI exceeding the most toxicological parameter (%ADI N=9,300). Rice, beans, citrus and tomato were the commodities which most contributed to the ingestion. From the compounds under higher risk, only 6 were registered according to the Law 98.816/90, which concerns the use of pesticides in the country. CONCLUSIONS: The compounds identified in the study as presenting a potential health concern to the Brazilian consumers, and the commodities which most contributed to the ingestion, should be prioritized by the government in pesticide residue monitoring programs and in the re-registration process. In addition, residue data in food as consumed, processing factors and appropriate consumption data should be generated to allow further studies.

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