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Introducción: La obesidad es un problema mundial de salud. El desayuno parece asociarse con un menor IMC en adolescentes, pero hay poca evidencia en nuestro medio del riesgo de obesidad general o abdominal según la cantidad de comidas diarias y las horas de sueño. Objetivo: Estudiar la asociación entre los horarios de alimentación y de sueño y el riesgo de obesidad y adiposidad en adolescentes chilenos. Sujetos y métodos: Estudio transversal en 290 adolescentes (12-19 años) de un colegio municipal de San Antonio, V Región de Chile. Se les evaluó el IMC, la circunferencia abdominal (CA), la adiposidad general (AG) y se completó una encuesta de frecuencia de consumo y sueño. Resultados: En niñas hubo más obesidad en aquellas con <3 comidas/día vs con >4 comidas/día (9,4 vs 0,7%; OR= 7,6; IC95%: 1,8-44,0), también en varones (17,7% vs 2,6%; OR=9,8; IC 95%: 2,941,3). En mujeres la CA fue mayor con <3 vs >4 comidas/día (83,8±10,9 vs 73,3± 6,6 cm; p<0,05); lo mismo en varones (81,2± 9,5 cm vs 75,5± 6,3 cm; p<0,05). Un 38,8% de los varones tenían AG aumentada con <3 comidas/día vs 7,2% con >4 comidas/día (OR= 10,5; IC95%: 3,3-35,1). Los varones que dormían < 9 h/d presentaron >IMC que los con > 9 h/d: 22,8± 3,9 vs 21,5± 3,9 Kg/m² (p<0,05). El análisis multivariado mostró al numero de comidas/día como el principal factor asociado a obesidad. Conclusiones: En estos adolescentes la frecuencia de comidas <3/día se asoció con un mayor riesgo de adiposidad y de obesidad central y en varones además con < 9 h/d de sueño.

Background: Obesity is a global health problem. Eating breakfast maybe associated with a lower risk of obesity in adolescents; scarce evidence is available in our country about risk of obesity associated to the frequency of daily meals or shortened sleep. Objective: To evaluate the association among daily meals and sleeping schedules and risk of adiposity and obesity in Chilean adolescents. Subjects and methods: In a cross-sectional study, 290 adolescents (12- 19 y), attending to a public school in San Antonio city Chile, were evaluated for nutritional status, daily meal schedule and sleep. Results: Obesity was greater in females consuming <3 meals/day vs >4 meals/day (9.4% vs 0.7%; OR= 7.6 IC95%:l.8-44.0); also in males (17.7% vs 2.6%; OR=9.8 IC 95% :2.9-41.3). Abdominal circumference was higher in females consuming <3 meals/day than those with >4 meals/day (83.8±I0.9 vs 73.3± 6.6 cm; (p<0.05), and also in males (81.2± 9.5 vs 75.5± 6.3 cm; p<0.05); 38.8% of males with <3 meals/day had increased body fat vs 7.2% in those consuming>4 meals/day (OR= 10.5 IC95%: 3.3-35.1). Males sleeping < 9h/d exhibited > BMI: 22.8± 3.9 vs 21.5± 3.9 Kg/m² (p<0.05). Multivariate analysis showed the number of daily meals as the only factor associated with obesity. Conclusions: In these Chilean adolescents, low amount of daily meals is the main factor associated to obesity, to adiposity and to abdominal circumference, and few hours of sleep/day only for males.

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Introducción: La hiperuricemia se ha observado como una alteración metabólica adicional en pacientes adultos obesos, pero es poco conocida su magnitud en pacientes pediátricos. Objetivos: Analizar la asociación entre ácido úrico sérico (AUS) con magnitud de la obesidad general y visceral y con otras mediciones bioquímicas en niños y adolescentes obesos de Santiago, Chile. Sujetos y método: En un estudio transversal se evaluaron 770 niños (edades: 6-15 años) de un colegio público de Santiago, Chile, encontrando 227 obesos (29%) (IMC > 2 DE, estándares OMS). Se seleccionaron aleatoriamente 90 niños y aceptaron participar 77, sin otras enfermedades crónicas. Se evaluó: peso, talla, perímetro abdominal, adiposidad visceral con ultrasonografía abdominal y mediciones metabólicas: insulinemia, glucemia (HOMA), lípidos séricos, aspartato aminotransferasa, alanina aminotransferasa (ALT) y AUS. Resultados: Las concentraciones de AUS fueron 0,200 ± 0,065 mmol/l. El AUS fue mayor en niños con valores de hiperinsulinismo (ajustado según edad): 0,221 ± 0,075 vs 0,183 ± 0,054 mmol/l (p < 0,01), sin diferencias según HOMA; las diferencias también se observaron según ALT (> vs < 26 U/ml): 0,238 ± 0,070 vs 0,178 ± 0,054 mmol/l, p < 0,001; la regresión logística controlando por sexo, edad e intensidad de la obesidad mostró solo las ALT asociadas a aumento de AUS. No hubo asociación de mayor AUS con magnitud de IMC, adiposidad visceral o hígado graso. Conclusiones: Los niños y adolescentes obesos de Santiago, Chile, tienen una uricemia mayor en asociación a un aumento de la actividad de la enzima ALT e hiperinsulinismo. Se justifica analizar uricemia en el estudio de niños obesos y en su seguimiento.

Introduction: Hyperuricaemia has been suggested as an additional metabolic factor in adult obese patients, but it has not been sufficiently studied in paediatric. Objectives: To assess the relationship between serum uric acid levels (SUAL) with the level of general and visceral obesity, and other biochemical parameters in children and adolescents of Santiago, Chile. Subjects and method: A cross sectional study was conducted on 770 children and adolescents (ages: 6-15 y.) from a public school in Santiago, Chile, of whom 227 (29%) were obese (BMI > 2 SD, WHO growth standards). Ninety subjects were randomly selected and 77 with no other chronic disease (41 males) accepted to participate. Data was collected on weight, stature, abdominal circumference (AC), visceral adiposity using ultrasound, and other biochemical measurements including fasting glucose, insulin, serum lipids, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and SUAL. Results: The mean SUAL was 0.200 ± 0.065 mmol/L, and was increased in children with hyperinsulinism (adjusted by age: 0.221 ± 0.075 vs 0.183 ± 0.054 mmol/L; P < .01), with no significant differences according to HOMA. Differences were also found between children with ALT > or < 26 U/mL: 0.238 ± 0.070 vs 0.178 ± 0.054 mmol/L, P < .001. The logistic regression showed the increased SUAL was only associated with increased ALT. No significant differences were found in general or visceral adiposity measurements or fatty liver. Conclusions: Children and adolescents from Santiago, Chile have higher uric acid serum uric acid levels as well as an association with increased ALT and insulin. It is demonstrated in this study that uric acid should be measured in obese children and adolescents, and in their follow up.

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INTRODUCTION: Hyperuricaemia has been suggested as an additional metabolic factor in adult obese patients, but it has not been sufficiently studied in paediatric. OBJECTIVES: To assess the relationship between serum uric acid levels (SUAL) with the level of general and visceral obesity, and other biochemical parameters in children and adolescents of Santiago, Chile. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: A cross sectional study was conducted on 770 children and adolescents (ages: 6-15 y.) from a public school in Santiago, Chile, of whom 227 (29%) were obese (BMI>2 SD, WHO growth standards). Ninety subjects were randomly selected and 77 with no other chronic disease (41 males) accepted to participate. Data was collected on weight, stature, abdominal circumference (AC), visceral adiposity using ultrasound, and other biochemical measurements including fasting glucose, insulin, serum lipids, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and SUAL. RESULTS: The mean SUAL was 0.200±0.065 mmol/L, and was increased in children with hyperinsulinism (adjusted by age: 0.221±0.075 vs. 0.183±0.054 mmol/L; P<.01), with no significant differences according to HOMA. Differences were also found between children with ALT>or<26 U/mL: 0.238±0.070 vs. 0.178±0.054 mmol/L, P<.001. The logistic regression showed the increased SUAL was only associated with increased ALT. No significant differences were found in general or visceral adiposity measurements or fatty liver. CONCLUSIONS: Children and adolescents from Santiago, Chile have higher uric acid serum uric acid levels as well as an association with increased ALT and insulin. It is demonstrated in this study that uric acid should be measured in obese children and adolescents, and in their follow up.

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Introducción: Los niños con parálisis cerebral (PC) tienen mayor riesgo de deficiencia de vitamina D (VD). Aunque existen bastantes estudios sobre VD en PC, hay limitada información sobre suplementación con VD en estos pacientes. Objetivo: Evaluar el efecto de la suplementación con VD en monodosis en las concentraciones plasmáticas de 25-hidroxi-vitamina-D (25OHD) en niños con PC. Pacientes y método: Estudio controlado, prospectivo y aleatorizado. Se estudiaron 30 niños chilenos (19 varones) con PC, mediana de edad de 9,9 años (6,2-13,5). Se registraron las variables clínicas y bioquímicas incluyendo 25OHD (tiempo 0 y 8 semanas). El grupo suplementado (S) recibió 100.000 UI D3 oral (tiempo 0), comparado con el grupo placebo (P). Resultados: Entre las características clínicas destaca: gastrostomizados (60%), desnutrición (30%), postración (93,3%), uso de antiepilépticos (70%) y uso de antiepilépticos inductores del metabolismo de VD (43,3%). Las mediciones basales de variables bioquímicas fueron normales. La 25OHD fue insuficiente en 4/30 y deficiente en 6/30. No hubo asociación de 25OHD con las variables estudiadas. Completaron el estudio 8 pacientes en el grupo S y 10 en el P. En ambos grupos no se observaron diferencias significativas en las variables basales. A las 8 semanas la calcemia, la fosfemia y la fosfatasa alcalina fueron normales en ambos grupos, la 25OHD en el grupo P fue normal en 6/10 e insuficiente + deficiente en 4/10 y normal en 8/8 en el grupo S (test exacto de Fisher, p = 0,07). Conclusiones: Una monodosis de 100.000 UI de VD podría normalizar las concentraciones de 25OHD en niños con PC. Se necesitan más estudios para confirmar estos resultados.

Introduction: Children with cerebral palsy (CP) have an increased risk of vitamin D (VD) deficiency. Although there are many studies on VD and CP, there is limited information about VD supplementation in these patients. Objective: To evaluate the effect of supplementation with a single dose of VD on the plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxy-vitamin-D (25OHD) in children with CP. Patients and method: Prospective-randomised-controlled-trial, including 30 Chilean children (19 males) with CP, median age 9.9 years (6.2-13.5). Clinical and biochemical variables including 25OHD, were recorded (time 0 and 8 weeks). Patients were allocated to the supplemented (S) group receiving 100,000 IU oral D3 at baseline, and compared with the placebo (P) group. Results: Among clinical features are highlighted: gastrostomy (60%), underweight (30%), bedridden (93.3%), antiepileptic drugs (70%), and 43.3% used VD metabolism inducing antiepileptics. Baseline biochemical measurements were normal. The 25OHD was insufficient in 4/30 and deficient in 6/30. 25OHD levels were not associated with the variables studied. Eight patients completed the study in the S group, and 10 in P group. The placebo and supplementation groups had no significant difference in baseline variables. Serum calcium, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase levels at 8 weeks were normal in both groups, with no statistically significant differences. 25OHD in the P group was normal in 6/10, and insufficient + deficient in 4/10, and the S group was normal in all (8/8) (exact Fisher test P = .07). Conclusions: A single dose of 100,000 IU VD could normalise the concentrations of 25OHD after 8 weeks of supplementation in Children with CP, but more studies are required to confirm these results.

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INTRODUCTION: Children with cerebral palsy (CP) have an increased risk of vitamin D (VD) deficiency. Although there are many studies on VD and CP, there is limited information about VD supplementation in these patients. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of supplementation with a single dose of VD on the plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxy-vitamin-D (25OHD) in children with CP. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Prospective-randomised-controlled-trial, including 30 Chilean children (19 males) with CP, median age 9.9 years (6.2-13.5). Clinical and biochemical variables including 25OHD, were recorded (time 0 and 8 weeks). Patients were allocated to the supplemented (S) group receiving 100,000 IU oral D3 at baseline, and compared with the placebo (P) group. RESULTS: Among clinical features are highlighted: gastrostomy (60%), underweight (30%), bed-ridden (93.3%), antiepileptic drugs (70%), and 43.3% used VD metabolism inducing antiepileptics. Baseline biochemical measurements were normal. The 25OHD was insufficient in 4/30 and deficient in 6/30. 25OHD levels were not associated with the variables studied. Eight patients completed the study in the S group, and 10 in P group. The placebo and supplementation groups had no significant difference in baseline variables. Serum calcium, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase levels at 8 weeks were normal in both groups, with no statistically significant differences. 25OHD in the P group was normal in 6/10, and insufficient+deficient in 4/10, and the S group was normal in all (8/8) (exact Fisher test P=.07). CONCLUSIONS: A single dose of 100,000 IU VD could normalise the concentrations of 25OHD after 8 weeks of supplementation in Children with CP, but more studies are required to confirm these results.

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Introducción: Las migraciones constituyen un fenómeno creciente en América Latina (AL), pero hay poca información sobre la magnitud en población pediátrica y asociación con variables sociodemográficas. Objetivo: Estudiar la asociación de variables sociodemográficas con la tasa de inmigración de población pediátrica en países de AL. Material y métodos: Se buscó información sobre migraciones en países de AL en: Organización Internacional para Migraciones, Organización Panamericana de la Salud y Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo. Se efectuaron correlaciones o comparación entre países de variables económicas y demográficas: ingreso nacional bruto per cápita (INB), índice de desarrollo humano (IDH), coeficiente de desigualdad Gini (CG) y tasa de alfabetización (% adultos alfabetizados, TA), con tasa neta de migración por país (TNM) y de niños < 15 años (IN15). Resultados: La TNM fue positiva para Costa Rica, Panamá, Venezuela, Chile y Argentina. No observamos asociación entre TNM con: INB, IDH, CG y TA. Hubo una asociación de IN15 con CG (r = 0,668, p = 0,01), con INB (r = -0,720; p = 0,01), con TA (r = -0,755; p = 0,01) y con IDH (r = -0,799; p = 0,01). La IN15 fue más baja en países de AL con mayor INB vs. aquellos con menor INB (Fisher, p < 0,0001). Conclusiones: Hay una asociación inversa entre INB per cápita, IDH, TA y directa del CG, con la proporción de IN15 de cada país. No observamos una asociación entre TNM con IDH, TA, CG. Debe analizarse el impacto en salud de estas migraciones infantiles.

Introduction: Migration is a growing phenomenon among Latin American countries (LAC) as well as others; however, scarce information is available studying its impact on paediatric groups and its association with socioeconomic variables. Objective: To study the association among socioeconomic variables and the immigration rate of paediatric population in LAC. Material and methods: Official rates of migration of LAC were obtained from: International Organization for Migration, Pan American Health Organization, and United Nations Development Programme. Demographic and socioeconomic information was also obtained for: gross domestic product (GDP), human development index (HDI), Gini coefficient of inequality (GC), alphabetization rate for adults (AA), net migration rate (NMR), and immigration of children < 15 years (IM15). Description, linear correlations and analysis of differences between groups of countries were assessed. Results: The NMR was positive for Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Chile and Argentina. No association among NMR and GDP, HDI, GC, AA was found. A correlation of IM15 was found with: GC (r = 0.668, P = .01), with GDP (r = -0.720; P = .01), AA (r = -0.755; P = .01) and with HDI (r = -0.799; P = .01). Rate of IM15 was lower in LA countries with advanced/medium development (GDP> median) vs those with low development (Fisher, P < .0001). Conclusions: There is a direct inverse association between GDP per capita, HDI, AA and GC and the proportion of each country IN15. We did not observe an association between NMR and HDI, AA, and GC. The health impact of these migrations should be analysed.

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INTRODUCTION: Migration is a growing phenomenon among Latin American countries (LAC) as well as others; however, scarce information is available studying its impact on paediatric groups and its association with socioeconomic variables. OBJECTIVE: To study the association among socioeconomic variables and the immigration rate of paediatric population in LAC. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Official rates of migration of LAC were obtained from: International Organization for Migration, Pan American Health Organization, and United Nations Development Programme. Demographic and socioeconomic information was also obtained for: gross domestic product (GDP), human development index (HDI), Gini coefficient of inequality (GC), alphabetization rate for adults (AA), net migration rate (NMR), and immigration of children<15 years (IM15). Description, linear correlations and analysis of differences between groups of countries were assessed. RESULTS: The NMR was positive for Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Chile and Argentina. No association among NMR and GDP, HDI, GC, AA was found. A correlation of IM15 was found with: GC (r=0.668, P=.01), with GDP (r=-0.720; P=.01), AA (r=-0.755; P=.01) and with HDI (r=-0.799; P=.01). Rate of IM15 was lower in LA countries with advanced/medium development (GDP>median) vs those with low development (Fisher, P<.0001). CONCLUSIONS: There is a direct inverse association between GDP per capita, HDI, AA and GC and the proportion of each country IN15. We did not observe an association between NMR and HDI, AA, and GC. The health impact of these migrations should be analysed.

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Se revisa críticamente la información científica relacionada con deficiencia de vitamina D (DVD) y riesgo de infecciones respiratorias agudas bajas (IRAB) o asma bronquial en niños. Las IRAB, en especial por virus respiratorio sincicial (VRS) están asociadas a una alta carga de enfermedad. Al no contar aún con una vacuna para ellas, las medidas preventivas y de sostén son las más importantes. El DVD es prevalente en todos los ambientes geográficos, con consecuencias ligadas al metabolismo de calcio y óseo, pero también alteraciones de la inmunidad. Hay evidencia inicial de una asociación entre DVD y mayor riesgo de IRAB, especialmente durante los primeros meses de vida; alelos de algunos polimorfismos del receptor de vitamina D podrían asociarse a un mayor riesgo de IRAB. Este escenario cosmopolita, justifica estudiar el impacto de medidas de suplementación de VD adaptadas a las realidades locales, a la madre durante el embarazo y/o al niño en los primeros meses de vida, que impacten sobre el riesgo de presentar IRAB y asma.

We critically review the information about vitamin D deficiency (VDD) and risk of lower respiratory infections and asthma in children. Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI), particularly those due to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are associated with a high burden of disease. In theabsence of a vaccine for them, prevention and support during illness are important measures to reduce the risk of acquiring the condition or decreasing its severity. VDD has been described as prevalent in all geographical environments; its consequences are linked to calcium and bone metabolism, but also to impaired immunity. Recent evidence of an association between VDD and increased risk of ALRI, especially during the first few months of life has been demonstrated; alleles of some polymorphism of vitamin D receptor may be involved in an increased risk of LRTI. It is justified to study the impact of measures of vitamin D supplementation adapted to local environments, including the appropriate doses to the mother during pregnancy and/or to the child in the first months of life, on the risk of ALRI, or asthma in later ages.

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La enfermedad celíaca (EC) parece estar cambiando en su clínica, desde formas diarreicas con desnutrición hasta aquellas con clínica más silente y más tardía. La enteropatía de la EC ocurre con malabsorción de macro- y micronutrientes, que incluyen Fe, Zn, Cu, folato, Ca, vitaminas E, D, B12 y B6, con mecanismos de transporte alterados. La anemia ferropriva se ha descrito en EC como única manifestación o como la manifestación extraintestinal más frecuente. La deficiencia de Zn es frecuente en EC, asociada a un retraso de crecimiento y alteraciones inmunitarias. La malabsorción intestinal puede comprometer la absorción de vitamina D, aunque su aporte dietario es responsable solo del 20% de las concentraciones séricas, por lo que lo importante es la exposición dérmica al sol. La causa de deficiencia de vitamina B12 en EC es desconocida; debe considerarse ante alteraciones neurológicas y hematológicas. La deficiencia de Cu se ha descrito de preferencia en celíacos adultos. Se concluye que, en el seguimiento de la EC, debiera estudiarse periódicamente la deficiencia de micronutrientes por sus consecuencias a largo plazo; debe sospecharse una EC ante signos clínicos no explicados de deficiencia de micronutrientes.

Celiac disease (CD) is apparently changing in its clinical presentation, from chronic diarrhea and malnutrition to a silent clinic at older ages. The basal enteropathy of CD induces macro-and micronutrient malabsorption. Described micronutrient deficiencies in CD include: Fe, Zn, Cu, folate, Ca, vitamin E, D, B12 and B6, with complex transporter mechanisms altered. Ferropenic anemia has been described in CD as the exclusive sign and the most common extraintestinal sign. Zn deficiency is frequent in CD, associated with growth delay and immune alterations. Even though the main basis for vitamin D metabolic status is the activation of subdermal vitamin precursors by sun-UVB rays, the small bowel compromise may affect activity and vitamin D absorption. Pathophysiology of vitamin B12 deficiency in CD is unknown; it must be suspected in CD patients presenting neurological and haematological alterations. Copper deficiency has been described mainly in adult CD patients. Micronutrient deficiencies should be periodically studied through the CD follow-up; celiac disease must be studied if clinical signs of micronutrient deficiencies are diagnosed.

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Celiac disease (CD) is apparently changing in its clinical presentation, from chronic diarrhea and malnutrition to a silent clinic at older ages. The basal enteropathy of CD induces macro-and micronutrient malabsorption. Described micronutrient deficiencies in CD include: Fe, Zn, Cu, folate, Ca, vitamin E, D, B12 and B6, with complex transporter mechanisms altered. Ferropenic anemia has been described in CD as the exclusive sign and the most common extraintestinal sign. Zn deficiency is frequent in CD, associated with growth delay and immune alterations. Even though the main basis for vitamin D metabolic status is the activation of subdermal vitamin precursors by sun-UVB rays, the small bowel compromise may affect activity and vitamin D absorption. Pathophysiology of vitamin B12 deficiency in CD is unknown; it must be suspected in CD patients presenting neurological and haematological alterations. Copper deficiency has been described mainly in adult CD patients. Micronutrient deficiencies should be periodically studied through the CD follow-up; celiac disease must be studied if clinical signs of micronutrient deficiencies are diagnosed.

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