RESUMO
Individuals with diabetes mellitus present a skeletal muscle myopathy characterized by atrophy. However, the mechanism underlying this muscular alteration remains elusive, which makes it difficult to design a rational treatment that could avoid the negative consequences in muscles due to diabetes. In the present work, the atrophy of skeletal myofibers from streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats was prevented with boldine, suggesting that non-selective channels inhibited by this alkaloid are involved in this process, as has previously shown for other muscular pathologies. Accordingly, we found a relevant increase in sarcolemma permeability of skeletal myofibers of diabetic animals in vivo and in vitro due to de novo expression of functional connexin hemichannels (Cx HCs) containing connexins (Cxs) 39, 43, and 45. These cells also expressed P2X7 receptors, and their inhibition in vitro drastically reduced sarcolemma permeability, suggesting their participation in the activation of Cx HCs. Notably, sarcolemma permeability of skeletal myofibers was prevented by boldine treatment that blocks Cx43 and Cx45 HCs, and now we demonstrated that it also blocks P2X7 receptors. In addition, the skeletal muscle alterations described above were not observed in diabetic mice with myofibers deficient in Cx43/Cx45 expression. Moreover, murine myofibers cultured for 24 h in high glucose presented a drastic increase in sarcolemma permeability and levels of NLRP3, a molecular member of the inflammasome, a response that was also prevented by boldine, suggesting that, in addition to the systemic inflammatory response found in diabetes, high glucose can promote the expression of functional Cx HCs and activation of the inflammasome in skeletal myofibers. Therefore, Cx43 and Cx45 HCs play a critical role in myofiber degeneration, and boldine could be considered a potential therapeutic agent to treat muscular complications due to diabetes.
Assuntos
Conexina 43 , Diabetes Mellitus Experimental , Camundongos , Ratos , Animais , Conexina 43/metabolismo , Diabetes Mellitus Experimental/complicações , Diabetes Mellitus Experimental/tratamento farmacológico , Diabetes Mellitus Experimental/metabolismo , Inflamassomos/metabolismo , Atrofia Muscular/tratamento farmacológico , Atrofia Muscular/etiologia , Atrofia Muscular/metabolismo , Músculo Esquelético/metabolismo , Conexinas/metabolismo , Glucose/metabolismoRESUMO
Dysferlinopathies are muscle dystrophies caused by mutations in the gene encoding dysferlin, a relevant protein for membrane repair and trafficking. These diseases are untreatable, possibly due to the poor knowledge of relevant molecular targets. Previously, we have shown that human myofibers from patient biopsies as well as myotubes derived from immortalized human myoblasts carrying a mutated form of dysferlin express connexin proteins, but their relevance in myoblasts fate and function remained unknown. In the present work, we found that numerous myoblasts bearing a mutated dysferlin when induced to acquire myogenic commitment express PPARγ, revealing adipogenic instead of myogenic commitment. These cell cultures presented many mononucleated cells with fat accumulation and within 48 h of differentiation formed fewer multinucleated cells. In contrast, dysferlin deficient myoblasts treated with boldine, a connexin hemichannels blocker, neither expressed PPARγ, nor accumulated fat and formed similar amount of multinucleated cells as wild type precursor cells. We recently demonstrated that myofibers of skeletal muscles from blAJ mice (an animal model of dysferlinopathies) express three connexins (Cx39, Cx43, and Cx45) that form functional hemichannels (HCs) in the sarcolemma. In symptomatic blAJ mice, we now show that eight-week treatment with a daily dose of boldine showed a progressive recovery of motor activity reaching normality. At the end of this treatment, skeletal muscles were comparable to those of wild type mice and presented normal CK activity in serum. Myofibers of boldine-treated blAJ mice also showed strong dysferlin-like immunoreactivity. These findings reveal that muscle dysfunction results from a pathophysiologic mechanism triggered by mutated dysferlin and downstream connexin hemichannels expressed de novo lead to a drastic reduction of myogenesis and favor muscle damage. Thus, boldine could represent a therapeutic opportunity to treat dysfernilopathies.
Assuntos
Aporfinas/farmacologia , Conexinas/metabolismo , Disferlina/genética , Músculo Esquelético/patologia , Mioblastos/patologia , Animais , Diferenciação Celular/efeitos dos fármacos , Disferlina/deficiência , Humanos , Masculino , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Mutantes , Fibras Musculares Esqueléticas/efeitos dos fármacos , Fibras Musculares Esqueléticas/patologia , Músculo Esquelético/efeitos dos fármacos , Músculo Esquelético/imunologia , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/patologia , Mioblastos/efeitos dos fármacos , Fármacos Neuromusculares Despolarizantes/farmacologia , Teste de Desempenho do Rota-Rod , Sarcolema/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
Dysferlinopathy is an autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy resulting from mutations in the dysferlin gene. Absence of dysferlin in the sarcolemma and progressive muscle wasting are hallmarks of this disease. Signs of oxidative stress have been observed in skeletal muscles of dysferlinopathy patients, as well as in dysferlin-deficient mice. However, the contribution of the redox imbalance to this pathology and the efficacy of antioxidant therapy remain unclear. Here, we evaluated the effect of 10 weeks diet supplementation with the antioxidant agent N-acetylcysteine (NAC, 1%) on measurements of oxidative damage, antioxidant enzymes, grip strength and body mass in 6 months-old dysferlin-deficient Bla/J mice and wild-type (WT) C57 BL/6 mice. We found that quadriceps and gastrocnemius muscles of Bla/J mice exhibit high levels of lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyls and superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, which were significantly reduced by NAC supplementation. By using the Kondziela's inverted screen test, we further demonstrated that NAC improved grip strength in dysferlin deficient animals, as compared with non-treated Bla/J mice, without affecting body mass. Together, these results indicate that this antioxidant agent improves skeletal muscle oxidative balance, as well as muscle strength and/or resistance to fatigue in dysferlin-deficient animals.
Assuntos
Acetilcisteína/administração & dosagem , Antioxidantes/administração & dosagem , Músculo Esquelético/efeitos dos fármacos , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/dietoterapia , Acetilcisteína/farmacologia , Animais , Antioxidantes/farmacologia , Índice de Massa Corporal , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Humanos , Peroxidação de Lipídeos/efeitos dos fármacos , Camundongos , Força Muscular/efeitos dos fármacos , Músculo Esquelético/metabolismo , Músculo Esquelético/fisiopatologia , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/metabolismo , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/fisiopatologia , Estresse Oxidativo/efeitos dos fármacos , Carbonilação Proteica/efeitos dos fármacos , Superóxido Dismutase/metabolismo , Resultado do TratamentoRESUMO
Glucocorticoids are frequently used as anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents. However, high doses and/or prolonged use induce undesired secondary effects such as muscular atrophy. Recently, de novo expression of connexin43 and connexin45 hemichannels (Cx43 HCs and Cx45 HCs, respectively) has been proposed to play a critical role in the mechanism underlying myofiber atrophy induced by dexamethasone (Dex: a synthetic glucocorticoid), but their involvement in specific muscle changes promoted by Dex remains poorly understood. Moreover, treatments that could prevent the undesired effects of glucocorticoids on skeletal muscles remain unknown. In the present work, a 7-day Dex treatment in adult mice was found to induce weight loss and skeletal muscle changes including expression of functional Cx43/Cx45 HCs, elevated atrogin immunoreactivity, atrophy, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. All these undesired effects were absent in muscles of mice simultaneously treated with Dex and vitamin E (VitE). Moreover, VitE was found to rapidly inhibit the activity of Cx HCs in freshly isolated myofibers of Dex treated mice. Exposure to alkaline pH induced free radical generation only in HeLa cells expressing Cx43 or Cx45 where Ca2+ was present in the extracellular milieu, response that was prevented by VitE. Besides, VitE and two other anti-oxidant compounds, Tempol and Resveratrol, were found to inhibit Cx43 HCs in HeLa cells transfectants. Thus, we propose that in addition to their intrinsic anti-oxidant potency, some antioxidants could be used to reduce expression and/or opening of Cx HCs and consequently reduce the undesired effect of glucocorticoids on skeletal muscles.
Assuntos
Conexinas/metabolismo , Glucocorticoides/farmacologia , Músculo Esquelético/efeitos dos fármacos , Músculo Esquelético/metabolismo , Vitamina E/farmacologia , Animais , Antioxidantes/farmacologia , Conexinas/genética , Dexametasona/farmacologia , Imunofluorescência , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/efeitos dos fármacos , Células HeLa , Humanos , Camundongos , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Músculo Esquelético/patologia , Atrofia Muscular/etiologia , Atrofia Muscular/metabolismo , Atrofia Muscular/patologia , Estresse Oxidativo/efeitos dos fármacos , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Redução de PesoRESUMO
Dysferlinopathy is a genetic human disease caused by mutations in the gene that encodes the dysferlin protein (DYSF). Dysferlin is believed to play a relevant role in cell membrane repair. However, in dysferlin-deficient (blAJ) mice (a model of dysferlinopathies) the recovery of the membrane resealing function by means of the expression of a mini-dysferlin does not arrest progressive muscular damage, suggesting the participation of other unknown pathogenic mechanisms. Here, we show that proteins called connexins 39, 43 and 45 (Cx39, Cx43 and Cx45, respectively) are expressed by blAJ myofibers and form functional hemichannels (Cx HCs) in the sarcolemma. At rest, Cx HCs increased the sarcolemma permeability to small molecules and the intracellular Ca2+ signal. In addition, skeletal muscles of blAJ mice showed lipid accumulation and lack of dysferlin immunoreactivity. As sign of extensive damage and atrophy, muscles of blAJ mice presented elevated numbers of myofibers with internal nuclei, increased number of myofibers with reduced cross-sectional area and elevated creatine kinase activity in serum. In agreement with the extense muscle damage, mice also showed significantly low motor performance. We generated blAJ mice with myofibers deficient in Cx43 and Cx45 expression and found that all above muscle and systemic alterations were absent, indicating that these two Cxs play a critical role in a novel pathogenic mechanism of dysfernolophaties, which is discussed herein. Therefore, Cx HCs could constitute an attractive target for pharmacologic treatment of dyferlinopathies.
Assuntos
Conexina 43/genética , Conexinas/genética , Disferlina/genética , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/genética , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/prevenção & controle , Miofibrilas/genética , Animais , Cálcio/metabolismo , Conexina 43/deficiência , Conexinas/deficiência , Creatina Quinase/sangue , Creatina Quinase/genética , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Disferlina/deficiência , Expressão Gênica , Humanos , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/metabolismo , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/patologia , Mutação , Miofibrilas/metabolismo , Miofibrilas/patologia , Permeabilidade , Condicionamento Físico Animal , Teste de Desempenho do Rota-Rod , Sarcolema/metabolismoRESUMO
Denervation of skeletal muscles induces severe muscle atrophy, which is preceded by cellular alterations such as increased plasma membrane permeability, reduced resting membrane potential and accelerated protein catabolism. The factors that induce these changes remain unknown. Conversely, functional recovery following denervation depends on successful reinnervation. Here, we show that activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) by quantal release of acetylcholine (ACh) from motoneurons is sufficient to prevent changes induced by denervation. Using in vitro assays, ACh and non-hydrolysable ACh analogs repressed the expression of connexin43 and connexin45 hemichannels, which promote muscle atrophy. In co-culture studies, connexin43/45 hemichannel knockout or knockdown increased innervation of muscle fibers by dorsal root ganglion neurons. Our results show that ACh released by motoneurons exerts a hitherto unknown function independent of myofiber contraction. nAChRs and connexin hemichannels are potential molecular targets for therapeutic intervention in a variety of pathological conditions with reduced synaptic neuromuscular transmission.
Assuntos
Acetilcolina/metabolismo , Gânglios Espinais/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Músculo Esquelético/inervação , Atrofia Muscular/patologia , Receptores Nicotínicos/metabolismo , Acetilcolina/análogos & derivados , Acetilcolina/farmacologia , Animais , Permeabilidade da Membrana Celular/fisiologia , Células Cultivadas , Conexina 43/metabolismo , Conexinas/metabolismo , Masculino , Potenciais da Membrana/fisiologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Transgênicos , Músculo Esquelético/metabolismoRESUMO
Skeletal muscles (â¼50% of the body weight) are affected during acute and late sepsis and represent one sepsis associate organ dysfunction. Cell membrane changes have been proposed to result from a channelopathy of yet unknown cause associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and muscle atrophy. We hypothesize that the channelopathy might be explained at least in part by the expression of non-selective channels. Here, this possibility was studied in a characterized mice model of late sepsis with evident skeletal muscle atrophy induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). At day seven after CLP, skeletal myofibers were found to present de novo expression (immunofluorescence) of connexins 39, 43, and 45 and P2X7 receptor whereas pannexin1 did not show significant changes. These changes were associated with increased sarcolemma permeability (â¼4 fold higher dye uptake assay), â¼25% elevated in intracellular free-Ca concentration (FURA-2), activation of protein degradation via ubiquitin proteasome pathway (Murf and Atrogin 1 reactivity), moderate reduction in oxygen consumption not explained by changes in levels of relevant respiratory proteins, â¼3 fold decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (MitoTracker Red CMXRos) and â¼4 fold increased mitochondrial superoxide production (MitoSox). Since connexin hemichannels and P2X7 receptors are permeable to ions and small molecules, it is likely that they are main protagonists in the channelopathy by reducing the electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane resulting in detrimental metabolic changes and muscular atrophy.
Assuntos
Canalopatias/etiologia , Músculo Esquelético/patologia , Atrofia Muscular/metabolismo , Atrofia Muscular/patologia , Animais , Peso Corporal , Cálcio/metabolismo , Conexinas/metabolismo , Imunoensaio , Interleucina-6/metabolismo , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Fibras Musculares Esqueléticas/metabolismo , Fibras Musculares Esqueléticas/patologiaRESUMO
Although connexins (Cxs) are broadly expressed by cells of mammalian organisms, Cx39 has a very restricted pattern of expression and the biophysical properties of Cx39-based channels [hemichannels (HCs) and gap junction channels (GJCs)] remain largely unknown. Here, we used HeLa cells transfected with Cx39 (HeLa-Cx39 cells) in which intercellular electrical coupling was not detected, indicating the absence of GJCs. However, functional HCs were found on the surface of cells exposed to conditions known to increase the open probability of other Cx HCs (e.g., extracellular divalent cationic-free solution (DCFS), extracellular alkaline pH, mechanical stimulus and depolarization to positive membrane potentials). Cx39 HCs were blocked by some traditional Cx HC blockers, but not by others or a pannexin1 channel blocker. HeLa-Cx39 cells showed similar resting membrane potentials (RMPs) to those of parental cells, and exposure to DCFS reduced RMPs in Cx39 transfectants, but not in parental cells. Under these conditions, unitary events of ~75 pS were frequent in HeLa-Cx39 cells and absent in parental cells. Real-time cellular uptake experiments of dyes with different physicochemical features, as well as the application of a machine-learning approach revealed that Cx39 HCs are preferentially permeable to molecules characterized by six categories of descriptors, namely: (1) electronegativity, (2) ionization potential, (3) polarizability, (4) size and geometry, (5) topological flexibility and (6) valence. However, Cx39 HCs opened by mechanical stimulation or alkaline pH were impermeable to Ca2+. Molecular modeling of Cx39-based channels suggest that a constriction present at the intracellular portion of the para helix region co-localizes with an electronegative patch, imposing an energetic and steric barrier, which in the case of GJCs may hinder channel function. Results reported here demonstrate that Cx39 form HCs and add to our understanding of the functional roles of Cx39 HCs under physiological and pathological conditions in cells that express them.
RESUMO
BACKGROUND: Mutations in the gene encoding for dysferlin cause recessive autosomal muscular dystrophies called dysferlinopathies. These mutations induce several alterations in skeletal muscles, including, inflammation, increased membrane permeability and cell death. Despite the fact that the etiology of dysferlinopathies is known, the mechanism that explains the aforementioned alterations is still elusive. Therefore, we have now evaluated the potential involvement of connexin based hemichannels in the pathophysiology of dysferlinopathies. RESULTS: Human deltoid muscle biopsies of 5 Chilean dysferlinopathy patients exhibited the presence of muscular connexins (Cx40.1, Cx43 and Cx45). The presence of these connexins was also observed in human myotubes derived from immortalized myoblasts derived from other patients with mutated forms of dysferlin. In addition to the aforementioned connexins, these myotubes expressed functional connexin based hemichannels, evaluated by ethidium uptake assays, as opposed to myotubes obtained from a normal human muscle cell line, RCMH. This response was reproduced in a knock-down model of dysferlin, by treating RCMH cell line with small hairpin RNA specific for dysferlin (RCMH-sh Dysferlin). Also, the presence of P2X7 receptor and the transient receptor potential channel, TRPV2, another Ca(2+) permeable channels, was detected in the myotubes expressing mutated dysferlin, and an elevated resting intracellular Ca(2+) level was found in the latter myotubes, which was in turn reduced to control levels in the presence of the molecule D4, a selective Cx HCs inhibitor. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggests that dysferlin deficiency, caused by mutation or downregulation of dysferlin, promotes the expression of Cx HCs. Then, the de novo expression Cx HC causes a dysregulation of intracellular free Ca(2+) levels, which could underlie muscular damage associated to dysferlin mutations. This mechanism could constitute a potential therapeutical target in dysferlinopathies.
Assuntos
Conexinas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Membrana/deficiência , Fibras Musculares Esqueléticas/metabolismo , Proteínas Musculares/deficiência , Biópsia , Sinalização do Cálcio , Linhagem Celular , Disferlina , Humanos , Espaço Intracelular/metabolismo , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Fibras Musculares Esqueléticas/patologia , Proteínas Musculares/genética , Proteínas Musculares/metabolismo , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/metabolismo , Distrofia Muscular do Cíngulo dos Membros/patologia , Mutação/genética , Receptores Purinérgicos P2X7/metabolismo , Sarcolema/metabolismo , Canais de Cátion TRPV/metabolismoRESUMO
Skeletal muscles of patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) show numerous alterations including inflammation, apoptosis, and necrosis of myofibers. However, the molecular mechanism that explains these changes remains largely unknown. Here, the involvement of hemichannels formed by connexins (Cx HCs) was evaluated in skeletal muscle of mdx mouse model of DMD. Fast myofibers of mdx mice were found to express three connexins (39, 43 and 45) and high sarcolemma permeability, which was absent in myofibers of mdx Cx43(fl/fl)Cx45(fl/fl):Myo-Cre mice (deficient in skeletal muscle Cx43/Cx45 expression). These myofibers did not show elevated basal intracellular free Ca(2+) levels, immunoreactivity to phosphorylated p65 (active NF-κB), eNOS and annexin V/active Caspase 3 (marker of apoptosis) but presented dystrophin immunoreactivity. Moreover, muscles of mdx Cx43(fl/fl)Cx45(fl/fl):Myo-Cre mice exhibited partial decrease of necrotic features (big cells and high creatine kinase levels). Accordingly, these muscles showed similar macrophage infiltration as control mdx muscles. Nonetheless, the hanging test performance of mdx Cx43(fl/fl)Cx45(fl/fl):Myo-Cre mice was significantly better than that of control mdx Cx43(fl/fl)Cx45(fl/fl) mice. All three Cxs found in skeletal muscles of mdx mice were also detected in fast myofibers of biopsy specimens from patients with muscular dystrophy. Thus, reduction of Cx expression and/or function of Cx HCs may be potential therapeutic approaches to abrogate myofiber apoptosis in DMD.