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BACKGROUND: Low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) bear a disproportionate burden of communicable diseases. Social interaction data inform infectious disease models and disease prevention strategies. The variations in demographics and contact patterns across ages, cultures, and locations significantly impact infectious disease dynamics and pathogen transmission. LMICs lack sufficient social interaction data for infectious disease modeling. METHODS: To address this gap, we will collect qualitative and quantitative data from eight study sites (encompassing both rural and urban settings) across Guatemala, India, Pakistan, and Mozambique. We will conduct focus group discussions and cognitive interviews to assess the feasibility and acceptability of our data collection tools at each site. Thematic and rapid analyses will help to identify key themes and categories through coding, guiding the design of quantitative data collection tools (enrollment survey, contact diaries, exit survey, and wearable proximity sensors) and the implementation of study procedures. We will create three age-specific contact matrices (physical, nonphysical, and both) at each study site using data from standardized contact diaries to characterize the patterns of social mixing. Regression analysis will be conducted to identify key drivers of contacts. We will comprehensively profile the frequency, duration, and intensity of infants' interactions with household members using high resolution data from the proximity sensors and calculating infants' proximity score (fraction of time spent by each household member in proximity with the infant, over the total infant contact time) for each household member. DISCUSSION: Our qualitative data yielded insights into the perceptions and acceptability of contact diaries and wearable proximity sensors for collecting social mixing data in LMICs. The quantitative data will allow a more accurate representation of human interactions that lead to the transmission of pathogens through close contact in LMICs. Our findings will provide more appropriate social mixing data for parameterizing mathematical models of LMIC populations. Our study tools could be adapted for other studies.

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BACKGROUND: In April 2022, after a year of COVID-19 vaccination, there were large differences in coverage between urban and rural areas in Guatemala. To address barriers in rural communities, the "Health on Wheels" (HoW) strategy was implemented. The strategy deployed mobile brigades with a dedicated team of health workers and a culturally sensitive health promotion plan in selected communities in 15 districts in Alta Verapaz, a health area with low COVID-19 vaccination uptake and a high-level of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. This study evaluates the impact of the HoW strategy. METHODS: We measured the relative increase in COVID-19 doses administered prior and during the HoW implementation period in the 190 intervened communities and compared to 188 communities without the intervention. Communities were grouped by health district and the impact analyses were stratified by number of COVID-19 vaccine dose (1st, 2nd, and 3rd doses) and history of vaccine hesitancy. RESULTS: The increase in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd dose-COVID-19 vaccination coverage between before and during HoW implementation was 2.4, 2.2 and 2.6 times higher in intervened communities (20 %, 21 % and 37 % increase in 1st, 2nd and 3rd dose, respectively) than in non-intervened communities (8 %, 10 % and 14 % increase in 1st, 2nd and 3rd dose respectively). For the 1st dose, increase in dose administration was 2.9 times higher in intervened communities (n = 24) with hesitancy (24 % increase) compared to non-intervened communities (n = 188) without hesitancy (8 % increase). CONCLUSION: The deployment of mobile brigades with a dedicated team of vaccinators and culturally sensitive health promotion through the HoW strategy successfully accelerated the increase in COVID-19 vaccination coverage in rural communities in Guatemala.

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Objective: To estimate the early impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination on cases in older populations in four countries (Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, and the United States of America), and on deaths in Chile and Guatemala. Methods: Data were obtained from national databases of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths and vaccinations between 1 July 2020 and 31 August 2021. In each country, pre- and post-vaccination incidence ratios were calculated for COVID-19 cases and deaths in prioritized groups (50-59, 60-69, and ≥70 years) compared with those in the reference group (<50 years). Vaccination effect was calculated as the percentage change in incidence ratios between pre- and post-vaccination periods. Results: The ratio of COVID-19 cases in those aged ≥50 years to those aged <50 years decreased significantly after vaccine implementation by 9.8% (95% CI: 9.5 to 10.1%) in Chile, 22.5% (95% CI: 22.0 to 23.1%) in Colombia, 20.8% (95% CI: 20.6 to 21.1%) in Guatemala, and 7.8% (95% CI: 7.6 to 7.9%) in the USA. Reductions in the ratio were highest in adults aged ≥70 years. The effect of vaccination on deaths, with time lags incorporated, was highest in the age group ≥70 years in both Chile and Guatemala: 14.4% (95% CI: 11.4 to 17.4%) and 37.3% (95% CI: 30.9 to 43.7%), respectively. Conclusions: COVID-19 vaccination significantly reduced morbidity in the early post-vaccination period in targeted groups. In the context of a global pandemic with limited vaccine availability, prioritization strategies are important to reduce the burden of disease in high-risk age groups.

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[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To estimate the early impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination on cases in older populations in four countries (Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, and the United States of America), and on deaths in Chile and Guatemala. Methods. Data were obtained from national databases of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths and vac- cinations between 1 July 2020 and 31 August 2021. In each country, pre- and post-vaccination incidence ratios were calculated for COVID-19 cases and deaths in prioritized groups (50–59, 60–69, and ≥70 years) compared with those in the reference group (<50 years). Vaccination effect was calculated as the percentage change in incidence ratios between pre- and post-vaccination periods. Results. The ratio of COVID-19 cases in those aged ≥50 years to those aged <50 years decreased signifi- cantly after vaccine implementation by 9.8% (95% CI: 9.5 to 10.1%) in Chile, 22.5% (95% CI: 22.0 to 23.1%) in Colombia, 20.8% (95% CI: 20.6 to 21.1%) in Guatemala, and 7.8% (95% CI: 7.6 to 7.9%) in the USA. Reduc- tions in the ratio were highest in adults aged ≥70 years. The effect of vaccination on deaths, with time lags incorporated, was highest in the age group ≥70 years in both Chile and Guatemala: 14.4% (95% CI: 11.4 to 17.4%) and 37.3% (95% CI: 30.9 to 43.7%), respectively. Conclusions. COVID-19 vaccination significantly reduced morbidity in the early post-vaccination period in targeted groups. In the context of a global pandemic with limited vaccine availability, prioritization strategies are important to reduce the burden of disease in high-risk age groups.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Estimar el impacto temprano sobre los casos de enfermedad por coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) obtenido con la vacunación contra la COVID-19 en los grupos poblacionales de edad avanzada en cuatro países (Chile, Colombia, Estados Unidos de América y Guatemala), así como el efecto en la mortalidad en Chile y Guatemala. Métodos. Los datos se obtuvieron a partir de las bases de datos nacionales sobre vacunaciones y sobre casos de COVID-19 y muertes debidas a esta enfermedad entre el 1 de julio del 2020 y el 31 de agosto del 2021. Para cada país, se calcularon las razones de incidencia de casos de COVID-19 y de muertes por COVID-19 anteriores y posteriores a la vacunación en los grupos priorizados (50-59, 60-69 y ≥70 años) en comparación con las del grupo de referencia (<50 años). Se calculó el efecto de la vacunación expresado en forma de variación porcentual de la razón de las incidencias entre el período anterior y el posterior a la vacunación. Resultados. Tras la introducción de la vacuna, la razón de los casos de COVID-19 entre las personas ≥50 años y las <50 disminuyó significativamente en un 9,8% (IC del 95%: 9,5% a 10,1%) en Chile, en un 22,5% (IC del 95%: 22,0% a 23,1%) en Colombia, en un 7,8% (IC del 95%: 7,6% a 7,9%) en Estados Unidos de América y en un 20,8% (IC del 95%: 20,6% a 21,1%) en Guatemala. Las reducciones de la razón fueron máximas en las personas adultas ≥70 años. El efecto de la vacunación sobre las muertes, una vez incorporados los desfases cronológicos, fue máximo en el grupo de personas ≥70 años, tanto en Chile como en Guatemala: 14,4% (IC 95%: 11,4% a 17,4%) y 37,3% (IC 95%: 30,9% a 43,7%), respectivamente. Conclusiones. La vacunación contra la COVID-19 redujo significativamente la morbilidad en el período inmediato posterior a la vacunación en los grupos destinatarios. En el contexto de una pandemia con disponibilidad limitada de vacunas a nivel mundial, las estrategias de asignación de prioridades son un factor importante para reducir la carga de morbilidad en los grupos etarios de alto riesgo.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Estimar o impacto inicial da vacinação contra a doença pelo coronavírus 2019 (COVID-19) nos casos em populações idosas de quatro países (Chile, Colômbia, Guatemala e Estados Unidos da América) e nas mortes no Chile e na Guatemala. Métodos. Os dados foram obtidos de bancos de dados nacionais de casos e mortes confirmados por COVID-19 e de vacinações entre 1º de julho de 2020 e 31 de agosto de 2021. Em cada país, foram calculadas taxas de incidência pré e pós-vacinação de casos e mortes por COVID-19 em grupos priorizados (50 a 59, 60 a 69 e ≥70 anos) em comparação com o grupo de referência (<50 anos). O efeito da vacinação foi calculado como a mudança percentual nas taxas de incidência entre os períodos pré e pós-vacinação. Resultados. A incidência de casos de COVID-19 em pessoas com idade ≥50 anos em relação às com idade <50 anos diminuiu significativamente após a implementação da vacina, em 9,8% (IC 95%: 9,5 a 10,1%) no Chile, 22,5% (IC 95%: 22,0 a 23,1%) na Colômbia, 20,8% (IC 95%: 20,6 a 21,1%) na Guatemala e 7,8% (IC 95%: 7,6 a 7,9%) nos EUA. As reduções na incidência foram maiores em adultos com idade ≥70 anos. O efeito da vacinação sobre as mortes, com defasagens temporais incorporadas, foi maior na faixa etária ≥70 anos no Chile e na Guatemala, 14,4% (IC de 95%: 11,4 a 17,4%) e 37,3% (IC de 95%: 30,9 a 43,7%), respectivamente. Conclusões. A vacinação contra a COVID-19 reduziu significativamente a morbidade no início do período pós-vacinação nos grupos-alvo. No contexto de uma pandemia mundial com disponibilidade limitada de vacinas, estratégias de priorização são importantes para reduzir a carga de doença em grupos etários de alto risco.

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Guatemala implemented wastewater-based poliovirus surveillance in 2018, and three genetically unrelated vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) were detected in 2019. The Ministry of Health (MoH) response included event investigation through institutional and community retrospective case searches for acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) during 2018-2020 and a bivalent oral polio/measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination campaign in September 2019. This response was reviewed by an international expert team in July 2021. During the campaign, 93% of children 6 months <7 years of age received a polio-containing vaccine dose. No AFP cases were detected in the community search; institutional retrospective searches found 37% of unreported AFP cases in 2018‒2020. No additional VDPV was isolated from wastewater. No evidence of circulating VDPV was found; the 3 isolated VDPVs were classified as ambiguous VDPVs by the international team of experts. These detections highlight risk for poliomyelitis reemergence in countries with low polio vaccine coverage.

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ABSTRACT Objective. To estimate the early impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination on cases in older populations in four countries (Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, and the United States of America), and on deaths in Chile and Guatemala. Methods. Data were obtained from national databases of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths and vaccinations between 1 July 2020 and 31 August 2021. In each country, pre- and post-vaccination incidence ratios were calculated for COVID-19 cases and deaths in prioritized groups (50-59, 60-69, and ≥70 years) compared with those in the reference group (<50 years). Vaccination effect was calculated as the percentage change in incidence ratios between pre- and post-vaccination periods. Results. The ratio of COVID-19 cases in those aged ≥50 years to those aged <50 years decreased significantly after vaccine implementation by 9.8% (95% CI: 9.5 to 10.1%) in Chile, 22.5% (95% CI: 22.0 to 23.1%) in Colombia, 20.8% (95% CI: 20.6 to 21.1%) in Guatemala, and 7.8% (95% CI: 7.6 to 7.9%) in the USA. Reductions in the ratio were highest in adults aged ≥70 years. The effect of vaccination on deaths, with time lags incorporated, was highest in the age group ≥70 years in both Chile and Guatemala: 14.4% (95% CI: 11.4 to 17.4%) and 37.3% (95% CI: 30.9 to 43.7%), respectively. Conclusions. COVID-19 vaccination significantly reduced morbidity in the early post-vaccination period in targeted groups. In the context of a global pandemic with limited vaccine availability, prioritization strategies are important to reduce the burden of disease in high-risk age groups.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Estimar el impacto temprano sobre los casos de enfermedad por coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) obtenido con la vacunación contra la COVID-19 en los grupos poblacionales de edad avanzada en cuatro países (Chile, Colombia, Estados Unidos de América y Guatemala), así como el efecto en la mortalidad en Chile y Guatemala. Métodos. Los datos se obtuvieron a partir de las bases de datos nacionales sobre vacunaciones y sobre casos de COVID-19 y muertes debidas a esta enfermedad entre el 1 de julio del 2020 y el 31 de agosto del 2021. Para cada país, se calcularon las razones de incidencia de casos de COVID-19 y de muertes por COVID-19 anteriores y posteriores a la vacunación en los grupos priorizados (50-59, 60-69 y ≥70 años) en comparación con las del grupo de referencia (<50 años). Se calculó el efecto de la vacunación expresado en forma de variación porcentual de la razón de las incidencias entre el período anterior y el posterior a la vacunación. Resultados. Tras la introducción de la vacuna, la razón de los casos de COVID-19 entre las personas ≥50 años y las <50 disminuyó significativamente en un 9,8% (IC del 95%: 9,5% a 10,1%) en Chile, en un 22,5% (IC del 95%: 22,0% a 23,1%) en Colombia, en un 7,8% (IC del 95%: 7,6% a 7,9%) en Estados Unidos de América y en un 20,8% (IC del 95%: 20,6% a 21,1%) en Guatemala. Las reducciones de la razón fueron máximas en las personas adultas ≥70 años. El efecto de la vacunación sobre las muertes, una vez incorporados los desfases cronológicos, fue máximo en el grupo de personas ≥70 años, tanto en Chile como en Guatemala: 14,4% (IC 95%: 11,4% a 17,4%) y 37,3% (IC 95%: 30,9% a 43,7%), respectivamente. Conclusiones. La vacunación contra la COVID-19 redujo significativamente la morbilidad en el período inmediato posterior a la vacunación en los grupos destinatarios. En el contexto de una pandemia con disponibilidad limitada de vacunas a nivel mundial, las estrategias de asignación de prioridades son un factor importante para reducir la carga de morbilidad en los grupos etarios de alto riesgo.

RESUMO Objetivo. Estimar o impacto inicial da vacinação contra a doença pelo coronavírus 2019 (COVID-19) nos casos em populações idosas de quatro países (Chile, Colômbia, Guatemala e Estados Unidos da América) e nas mortes no Chile e na Guatemala. Métodos. Os dados foram obtidos de bancos de dados nacionais de casos e mortes confirmados por COVID-19 e de vacinações entre 1º de julho de 2020 e 31 de agosto de 2021. Em cada país, foram calculadas taxas de incidência pré e pós-vacinação de casos e mortes por COVID-19 em grupos priorizados (50 a 59, 60 a 69 e ≥70 anos) em comparação com o grupo de referência (<50 anos). O efeito da vacinação foi calculado como a mudança percentual nas taxas de incidência entre os períodos pré e pós-vacinação. Resultados. A incidência de casos de COVID-19 em pessoas com idade ≥50 anos em relação às com idade <50 anos diminuiu significativamente após a implementação da vacina, em 9,8% (IC 95%: 9,5 a 10,1%) no Chile, 22,5% (IC 95%: 22,0 a 23,1%) na Colômbia, 20,8% (IC 95%: 20,6 a 21,1%) na Guatemala e 7,8% (IC 95%: 7,6 a 7,9%) nos EUA. As reduções na incidência foram maiores em adultos com idade ≥70 anos. O efeito da vacinação sobre as mortes, com defasagens temporais incorporadas, foi maior na faixa etária ≥70 anos no Chile e na Guatemala, 14,4% (IC de 95%: 11,4 a 17,4%) e 37,3% (IC de 95%: 30,9 a 43,7%), respectivamente. Conclusões. A vacinação contra a COVID-19 reduziu significativamente a morbidade no início do período pós-vacinação nos grupos-alvo. No contexto de uma pandemia mundial com disponibilidade limitada de vacinas, estratégias de priorização são importantes para reduzir a carga de doença em grupos etários de alto risco.

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OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of laboratory-confirmed Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) cases from active facility-based surveillance in Guatemala. METHODS: We collected clinical and risk factor data on enrolled patients (aged 0-52 years) with acute diarrhoea at government healthcare facilities (1 hospital and 6 clinics) in Santa Rosa, Guatemala, during 2008-2009 and 2014-2015. Stool samples were analysed, E. coli identified through culture and biochemical tests, PCR amplification of genes encoding pathotype-specific virulence factors identified specific DEC pathotypes. Healthcare-seeking adjusted incidence rates were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 3041 diarrhoea cases were captured by surveillance (647 hospitalisations (H), 2394 clinic visits (CV)); general E. coli prevalence was 17.9%. DEC pathotypes were identified in 19% (n = 95/497) and 21% (n = 450/2113) in diarrhoea H and CV, respectively. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) was most frequently isolated (8.2% (n = 41) in diarrhoea H, 12.0% (n = 255) in diarrhoea CV), followed by ETEC (6.8% (n = 34) in H, 6% (n = 128) in CV) and STEC (0.6% (n = 3) in H, 0.6% (n = 13) in CV). We did not find evidence of a difference in severity between DEC and non-DEC diarrhoea. Incidence of DEC clinic visits and hospitalisations was 648.0 and 29.3, respectively, per 10,000 persons aged ≤5 years and 36.8 and 0.4, respectively, per 10,000 persons aged >5 years. CONCLUSIONS: DEC pathotypes, especially EPEC and ETEC, were detected frequently from patients presenting with diarrhoeal illness in Santa Rosa, Guatemala. Our findings suggest that preventive interventions should be prioritised for young children.

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Lake Atitlán has experienced a decline in water quality resulting from cultural eutrophication. Indigenous Mayans who already face disproportionate health challenges rely directly on the lake water. Our objectives were to: (1) estimate prevalence of shedding of water-borne fecal parasites among children 5 years of age and younger, (2) assess household-reported incidence of gastrointestinal illness in children, and (3) characterize water sources, treatment, and sanitation conditions in households. We hypothesized that household use of untreated lake water results in increased risk of shedding of parasites and gastrointestinal symptoms. A cross-sectional fecal sampling and physical exam of 401 children were conducted along with WASH surveys in partnership with healthcare providers in seven communities. Fecal samples were screened for Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum, using a rapid ELISA, with a portion examined by microscope. The prevalence of parasite shedding was 12.2% (9.7% for Giardia; 2.5% for Cryptosporidium). Risk factors for Giardia shedding included age 3 years or older (3.4 odds ratio, z-stat = 2.781 p = 0.0054), low height-for-age z-score (2.3 odds ratio, z-stat = 2.225, p = 0.0216), lack of any household water treatment (2.5 odds ratio, z-stat = 2.492, p < 0.0012), and open access to household latrine (2.04 odds ratio, z-stat = 1.992, p = 0.0464). The majority (77.3%) of households reported water treatment, boiling and gravity fed filters as the most widespread practices. The vast majority of households (92%) reported usage of a latrine, while 40% reported open and shared access beyond their household. An overwhelming majority of households reported diarrhea and fever several times per year or greater, with approximately half reporting vomiting at that frequency. Lake water use was identified as a risk factor for households reporting frequent gastrointestinal symptoms (odds ratio of 2.5, 4.4, and 2.6; z-stat of 3.10, 3.65, and 3.0; p-values of 0.0021, 0.0003, and 0.0028, for diarrhea, vomiting, and fever, respectively) in children 5 years of age and younger. The frequency of gastrointestinal illness with a strong link to lake drinking water cannot be explained by the prevalence of protozoa, and risk from other enteropathogens must be explored. Improving access to water treatment and sanitation practices could substantially reduce the parasite burden faced by developing children in the region.

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To examine the effects of poor sanitation and hygiene on the prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, we surveyed households in two rural and two urban communities in Guatemala (N = 196 randomly selected households). One adult (≥ 18-years old) and, when available, one child (≤ 5 years-old) provided a stool sample. Up to 48 presumptive Escherichia coli isolates were collected from each stool sample (n = 21,256 total) and were subjected to breakpoint assays for ten antibiotics. Mixed-effects logistic models were used to identify potential factors influencing the likelihood of harboring antibiotic-resistant bacteria. For nine out of ten antibiotics, the odds of detecting resistant bacteria decreased by ~ 32% (odds ratios, OR 0.53-0.8, P < 0.001) for every unit of improvement of a hygiene scale. Hygiene differences between households had a greater impact on prevalence compared to antibiotic use differences. The likelihood of detecting resistant isolates was lower for five antibiotics among households that boiled raw milk before consumption (OR 0.31-0.69), and higher for nine antibiotics in urban households (OR > 1.89-9.6). Poor hygiene conditions likely obscure effects of individual antibiotic use, presumably due to enhanced microbial transmission. Consequently, efforts to improve antibiotic stewardship should be coupled with improving hygiene conditions.

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Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi B variant Java sequence type 28 is prevalent in poultry and poultry meat. We investigated the evolutionary relatedness between sequence type 28 strains from Europe and Latin America using time-resolved phylogeny and principal component analysis. We sequenced isolates from Colombia, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and the Netherlands and complemented them with publicly available genomes from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Phylogenetic time trees and effective population sizes (Ne) showed separate clustering of strains from Latin America and Europe. The separation is estimated to have occurred during the 1980s. Ne of strains increased sharply in Europe around 1995 and in Latin America around 2005. Principal component analysis on noncore genes showed a clear distinction between strains from Europe and Latin America, whereas the plasmid gene content was similar. Regardless of the evolutionary separation, similar features of resistance to ß-lactams and quinolones/fluoroquinolones indicated parallel evolution of antimicrobial resistance in both regions.

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