RESUMO
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a chronic pathology that affects the heart and/or digestive system. This parasite invades and multiplies in virtually all nucleated cells, using a variety of host cell receptors for infection. T. cruzi has a gene that encodes an ecotin-like inhibitor of serine peptidases, ISP2. We generated ISP2-null mutants (Δisp2) in T. cruzi Dm28c using CRISPR/Cas9. Epimastigotes of Δisp2 grew normally in vitro but were more susceptible to lysis by human serum compared to parental and ISP2 add-back lines. Tissue culture trypomastigotes of Δisp2 were more infective to human muscle cells in vitro, which was reverted by the serine peptidase inhibitors aprotinin and camostat, suggesting that host cell epitheliasin/TMPRSS2 is the target of ISP2. Pretreatment of host cells with an antagonist to the protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) or an inhibitor of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) selectively counteracted the increased cell invasion by Δisp2, but did not affect invasion by parental and add-back lines. The same was observed following targeted gene silencing of PAR2, TLR4 or TMPRSS2 in host cells by siRNA. Furthermore, Δisp2 caused increased tissue edema in a BALB/c mouse footpad infection model after 3 h differently to that observed following infection with parental and add-back lines. We propose that ISP2 contributes to protect T. cruzi from the anti-microbial effects of human serum and to prevent triggering of PAR2 and TLR4 in host cells, resulting in the modulation of host cell invasion and contributing to decrease inflammation during acute infection.
Assuntos
Doença de Chagas , Trypanosoma cruzi , Animais , Camundongos , Humanos , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/genética , Receptor PAR-2/genética , Doença de Chagas/genética , Doença de Chagas/parasitologia , Antivirais/farmacologia , Inibidores de Serina Proteinase/farmacologia , Inflamação , Serina , Serina Endopeptidases/genéticaRESUMO
The protozoan parasite Leishmania (L.) amazonensis infects and replicates inside host macrophages due to subversion of the innate host cell response. In the present study, we demonstrate that TLR3 is required for the intracellular growth of L. (L.) amazonensis. We observed restricted intracellular infection of TLR3-/- mouse macrophages, reduced levels of IFN1ß and IL-10, and increased levels of IL-12 upon L. (L.) amazonensis infection, compared with their wild-type counterparts. Accordingly, in vivo infection of TLR3-/- mice with L. (L.) amazonensis displayed a significant reduction in lesion size. Leishmania (L.) amazonensis infection induced TLR3 proteolytic cleavage, which is a process required for TLR3 signaling. The chemical inhibition of TLR3 cleavage or infection by CPB-deficient mutant L. (L.) mexicana resulted in reduced parasite load and restricted the expression of IFN1ß and IL-10. Furthermore, we show that the dsRNA sensor molecule PKR (dsRNA-activated protein kinase) cooperates with TLR3 signaling to potentiate the expression of IL-10 and IFN1ß and parasite survival. Altogether, our results show that TLR3 signaling is engaged during L. (L.) amazonensis infection and this component of innate immunity modulates the host cell response.
Assuntos
Leishmania mexicana , Leishmaniose , Parasitos , Receptor 3 Toll-Like , Animais , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Interleucina-12/metabolismo , Leishmania mexicana/metabolismo , Leishmaniose/metabolismo , Leishmaniose/parasitologia , Camundongos , Parasitos/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinases/metabolismo , Receptor 3 Toll-Like/metabolismoRESUMO
Macrophages play critical roles in inflammation and defense against pathogens, as well as in the return to tissue homeostasis. Macrophage subpopulations displaying antagonistic phenotypes are generally classified as proinflammatory M1, implicated in antipathogen and antitumoral activities, or as anti-inflammatory M2, associated with tissue repair. Granulocytic and monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells recruited from the bone marrow to tissues and phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils can attenuate macrophage microbicidal activity. Here, we showed that bone marrow neutrophils, but not thioglycollate-recruited neutrophils, directly suppress the responses of macrophages that were previously committed to an inflammatory phenotype. Cocultures of inflammatory macrophages with bone marrow CD11b+Ly6Ghi granulocytes led to reduced release of IL-1ß, TNF-α, and IL-6 by macrophages after lipopolysaccharide stimulation. The suppressive activity was unrelated to granulocyte apoptosis or to secreted factors and required cell-to-cell contact. The suppressive effect was paralleled by reduction in the nuclear levels of the NF-κB p65 subunit, but not of the p50 subunit. Furthermore, bone marrow granulocytes decreased the phagocytic activity of macrophages and their capacity to kill intracellular Escherichia coli. Taken together, these results show that bone marrow granulocytes can function as suppressors of the proinflammatory activity and microbial-killing responses of macrophages.
Assuntos
Medula Óssea , Macrófagos , Granulócitos , Humanos , Inflamação , FagocitoseRESUMO
Leishmania donovani is a protozoan parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis, provoking liver and spleen tissue destruction that is lethal unless treated. The parasite replicates in macrophages and modulates host microbicidal responses. We have previously reported that neutrophil elastase (NE) is required to sustain L. donovani intracellular growth in macrophages through the induction of interferon beta (IFN-ß). Here, we show that the gene expression of IFN-ß by infected macrophages was reduced by half when TLR4 was blocked by pre-treatment with neutralizing antibodies or in macrophages from tlr2-/- mice, while the levels in macrophages from myd88-/- mice were comparable to those from wild-type C57BL/6 mice. The neutralization of TLR4 in tlr2-/- macrophages completely abolished induction of IFN-ß gene expression upon parasite infection, indicating an additive role for both TLRs. Induction of type I interferon (IFN-I), OASL2, SOD1, and IL10 gene expression by L. donovani was completely abolished in macrophages from NE knock-out mice (ela2-/-) or from protein kinase R (PKR) knock-out mice (pkr-/-), and in C57BL/6 macrophages infected with transgenic L. donovani expressing the inhibitor of serine peptidase 2 (ISP2). Parasite intracellular growth was impaired in pkr-/- macrophages but was fully restored by the addition of exogenous IFN-ß, and parasite burdens were reduced in the spleen of pkr-/- mice at 7 days, as compared to the 129Sv/Ev background mice. Furthermore, parasites were unable to grow in macrophages lacking TLR3, which correlated with lack of IFN-I gene expression. Thus, L. donovani engages innate responses in infected macrophages via TLR2, TLR4, and TLR3, via downstream PKR, to induce the expression of pro-survival genes in the host cell, and guarantee parasite intracellular development.
Assuntos
Interferon-alfa/metabolismo , Interferon beta/metabolismo , Leishmania donovani/imunologia , Leishmaniose Visceral/imunologia , Macrófagos Peritoneais/imunologia , Transdução de Sinais/genética , Receptor 2 Toll-Like/metabolismo , Receptor 3 Toll-Like/metabolismo , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/metabolismo , eIF-2 Quinase/metabolismo , Animais , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/farmacologia , Feminino , Expressão Gênica , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/efeitos dos fármacos , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/imunologia , Técnicas de Inativação de Genes , Interferon-alfa/genética , Interferon beta/genética , Leishmaniose Visceral/parasitologia , Elastase de Leucócito/antagonistas & inibidores , Elastase de Leucócito/genética , Elastase de Leucócito/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Transdução de Sinais/efeitos dos fármacos , Transdução de Sinais/imunologia , Sulfonamidas/farmacologia , Receptor 2 Toll-Like/genética , Receptor 3 Toll-Like/genética , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/antagonistas & inibidores , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/imunologia , eIF-2 Quinase/genéticaRESUMO
The protozoan Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense causes Human African Trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, and penetrates the central nervous system, leading to meningoencephalitis. The Cathepsin L-like cysteine peptidase of T. b. rhodesiense has been implicated in parasite penetration of the blood-brain barrier and its activity is modulated by the chagasin-family endogenous inhibitor of cysteine peptidases (ICP). To investigate the role of ICP in T. b. rhodesiense bloodstream form, ICP-null (Δicp) mutants were generated, and lines re-expressing ICP (Δicp:ICP). Lysates of Δicp displayed increased E-64-sensitive cysteine peptidase activity and the mutant parasites traversed human brain microvascular endothelial cell (HBMEC) monolayers in vitro more efficiently. Δicp induced E-selectin in HBMECs, leading to the adherence of higher numbers of human neutrophils. In C57BL/6 mice, no Δicp parasites could be detected in the blood after 6 days, while mice infected with wild-type (WT) or Δicp:ICP displayed high parasitemia, peaking at day 12. In mice infected with Δicp, there was increased recruitment of monocytes to the site of inoculation and higher levels of IFN-γ in the spleen. At day 14, mice infected with Δicp exhibited higher preservation of the CD4+, CD8+, and CD19+ populations in the spleen, accompanied by sustained high IFN-γ, while NK1.1+ populations receded nearly to the levels of uninfected controls. We propose that ICP helps to downregulate inflammatory responses that contribute to the control of infection.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Protozoários , Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense , Tripanossomíase Africana , Animais , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense/patogenicidade , Tripanossomíase Africana/parasitologia , Virulência , Proteínas de Protozoários/metabolismoRESUMO
Cruzipains are the main papain-like cysteine proteases of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease. Encoded by a multigenic family, previous studies have estimated the presence of dozens of copies spread over multiple chromosomes in different parasite strains. Here, we describe the complete gene repertoire of cruzipain in three parasite strains, their genomic organization, and expression pattern throughout the parasite life cycle. Furthermore, we have analyzed primary sequence variations among distinct family members as well as structural differences between the main groups of cruzipains. Based on phylogenetic inferences and residue positions crucial for enzyme function and specificity, we propose the classification of cruzipains into two families (I and II), whose genes are distributed in two or three separate clusters in the parasite genome, according with the strain. Family I comprises nearly identical copies to the previously characterized cruzipain 1/cruzain, whereas Family II encompasses three structurally distinct sub-types, named cruzipain 2, cruzipain 3, and cruzipain 4. RNA-seq data derived from the CL Brener strain indicates that Family I genes are mainly expressed by epimastigotes, whereas trypomastigotes mainly express Family II genes. Significant differences in the active sites among the enzyme sub-types were also identified, which may play a role in their substrate selectivity and impact their inhibition by small molecules.
Assuntos
Domínio Catalítico , Cisteína Endopeptidases/genética , Proteínas de Protozoários/genética , Trypanosoma cruzi/genética , Cisteína Endopeptidases/química , Cisteína Endopeptidases/metabolismo , Regulação da Expressão Gênica no Desenvolvimento , Estágios do Ciclo de Vida/genética , Proteínas de Protozoários/química , Proteínas de Protozoários/metabolismo , Trypanosoma cruzi/enzimologia , Trypanosoma cruzi/crescimento & desenvolvimentoRESUMO
Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is one of the causative agents of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), known as sleeping sickness. The parasite invades the central nervous system and causes severe encephalitis that is fatal if left untreated. We have previously identified ecotin-like inhibitors of serine peptidases, named ISPs, in trypanosomatid parasitic protozoa. Here, we investigated the role of ISP2 in bloodstream form T. b. rhodesiense. We generated gene-deficient mutants lacking ISP2 (Δisp2), which displayed a growth profile in vitro similar to that of wild-type (WT) parasites. C57BL/6 mice infected with Δisp2 displayed lower blood parasitemia, a delayed hind leg pathological phenotype and survived longer. The immune response was examined at two time-points that corresponded with two peaks of parasitemia. At 4 days, the spleens of Δisp2-infected mice had a greater percentage of NOS2+ myeloid cells, IFN-γ+-NK cells and increased TNF-α compared to those infected with WT and parasites re-expressing ISP2 (Δisp2:ISP2). By 13 days the increased NOS2+ population was sustained in Δisp2-infected mice, along with increased percentages of monocyte-derived dendritic cells, as well as CD19+ B lymphocytes, and CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes. Taken together, these findings indicate that ISP2 contributes to T. b. rhodesiense virulence in mice and attenuates the inflammatory response during early infection.
Assuntos
Inibidores de Serina Proteinase/metabolismo , Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense/genética , Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense/patogenicidade , Tripanossomíase Africana/imunologia , Animais , Animais Geneticamente Modificados , Anticorpos Monoclonais , Feminino , Inflamação , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Inibidores de Serina Proteinase/genética , Baço/parasitologia , VirulênciaRESUMO
Visceral leishmaniasis is a deadly illness caused by Leishmania donovani that provokes liver and spleen inflammation and tissue destruction. In cutaneous leishmaniasis, the protein of L. major, named inhibitor of serine peptidases (ISP) 2, inactivates neutrophil elastase (NE) present at the macrophage surface, resulting in blockade of TLR4 activation, prevention of TNF-α and IFN-ß production, and parasite survival. We report poor intracellular growth of L. donovani in macrophages from knockout mice for NE (ela-/-), TLR4, or TLR2. NE and TLR4 colocalized with the parasite in the parasitophorous vacuole. Parasite load in the liver and spleen of ela-/- mice were reduced and accompanied by increased NO and decreased TGF-ß production. Expression of ISP2 was not detected in L. donovani, and a transgenic line constitutively expressing ISP2, displayed poor intracellular growth in macrophages and decreased burden in mice. Infected ela-/- macrophages displayed significantly lower IFN-ß mRNA than background mice macrophages, and the intracellular growth was fully restored by exogenous IFN-ß. We propose that L. donovani utilizes the host NE-TLR machinery to induce IFN-ß necessary for parasite survival and growth during early infection. Low or absent expression of parasite ISP2 in L. donovani is necessary to preserve the activation of the NE-TLR pathway.-Dias, B. T., Dias-Teixeira, K. L., Godinho, J. P., Faria, M. S., Calegari-Silva, T., Mukhtar, M. M., Lopes, U. G., Mottram, J. C., Lima, A. P. C. A. Neutrophil elastase promotes Leishmania donovani infection via interferon-ß.
Assuntos
Interferon beta/metabolismo , Leishmania donovani/patogenicidade , Leishmaniose Visceral/etiologia , Elastase de Leucócito/metabolismo , Animais , Animais Geneticamente Modificados , Leishmania donovani/genética , Leishmania donovani/fisiologia , Leishmaniose Visceral/metabolismo , Leishmaniose Visceral/parasitologia , Elastase de Leucócito/deficiência , Elastase de Leucócito/genética , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Macrófagos/parasitologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Proteínas de Protozoários/genética , Proteínas de Protozoários/fisiologia , Receptor 2 Toll-Like/deficiência , Receptor 2 Toll-Like/genética , Receptor 2 Toll-Like/metabolismo , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/deficiência , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/genética , Receptor 4 Toll-Like/metabolismoRESUMO
Chagasin-type inhibitors comprise natural inhibitors of papain-like cysteine proteases that are distributed among Protist, Bacteria and Archaea. Chagasin was identified in the pathogenic protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi as an approximately 11 kDa protein that is a tight-binding and highly thermostable inhibitor of papain, cysteine cathepsins and endogenous parasite cysteine proteases. It displays an Imunoglobulin-like fold with three exposed loops to one side of the molecule, where amino acid residues present in conserved motifs at the tips of each loop contact target proteases. Differently from cystatins, the loop 2 of chagasin enters the active-site cleft, making direct contact with the catalytic residues, while loops 4 and 6 embrace the enzyme from the sides. Orthologues of chagasin are named Inhibitors of Cysteine Peptidases (ICP), and share conserved overall tri-dimensional structure and mode of binding to proteases. ICPs are tentatively distributed in three families: in family I42 are grouped chagasin-type inhibitors that share conserved residues at the exposed loops; family I71 contains Plasmodium ICPs, which are large proteins having a chagasin-like domain at the C-terminus, with lower similarity to chagasin in the conserved motif at loop 2; family I81 contains Toxoplasma ICP. Recombinant ICPs tested so far can inactivate protozoa cathepsin-like proteases and their mammalian counterparts. Studies on their biological roles were carried out in a few species, mainly using transgenic protozoa, and the conclusions vary. However, in all cases, alterations in the levels of expression of chagasin/ICPs led to substantial changes in one or more steps of parasite biology, with higher incidence in influencing their interaction with the hosts. We will cover most of the findings on chagasin/ICP structural and functional properties and overview the current knowledge on their roles in protozoa.
Assuntos
Inibidores de Cisteína Proteinase/metabolismo , Plasmodium/enzimologia , Proteínas de Protozoários/metabolismo , Trypanosoma cruzi/enzimologia , Motivos de Aminoácidos/genética , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Sítios de Ligação/genética , Plasmodium/genética , Proteínas de Protozoários/genética , Homologia de Sequência de Aminoácidos , Especificidade da Espécie , Trypanosoma cruzi/genéticaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is a complex disease endemic in Central and South America. It has been gathering interest due to increases in non-vectorial forms of transmission, especially in developed countries. The objective of this work was to investigate if adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ASC) can alter the course of the disease and attenuate pathology in a mouse model of chagasic cardiomyopathy. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: ASC were injected intraperitoneally at 3 days post-infection (dpi). Tracking by bioluminescence showed that cells remained in the abdominal cavity for up to 9 days after injection and most of them migrated to the abdominal or subcutaneous fat, an early parasite reservoir. ASC injection resulted in a significant reduction in blood parasitemia, which was followed by a decrease in cardiac tissue inflammation, parasitism and fibrosis at 30 dpi. At the same time point, analyses of cytokine release in cells isolated from the heart and exposed to T. cruzi antigens indicated an anti-inflammatory response in ASC-treated animals. In parallel, splenocytes exposed to the same antigens produced a pro-inflammatory response, which is important for the control of parasite replication, in placebo and ASC-treated groups. However, splenocytes from the ASC group released higher levels of IL-10. At 60 dpi, magnetic resonance imaging revealed that right ventricular (RV) dilation was prevented in ASC-treated mice. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In conclusion, the injection of ASC early after T. cruzi infection prevents RV remodeling through the modulation of immune responses. Lymphoid organ response to the parasite promoted the control of parasite burden, while the heart, a target organ of Chagas disease, was protected from damage due to an improved control of inflammation in ASC-treated mice.