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BACKGROUND: The exploitative marketing of commercial milk formula (CMF) reduces breastfeeding, and harms child and maternal health globally. Yet forty years after the International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes (The Code) was adopted by WHO member states, many countries are still to fully implement its provisions into national law. Furthermore, despite The Code, worldwide CMF markets have markedly expanded. In this paper, we adopt Brazil as a case study to understand the power of the baby food industry's marketing and corporate political activity, and how this influences the country's 'first-food system' in ways that promote and sustain CMF consumption. METHODS: We used a case study design, drawing data from from documents and key informant interviews (N = 10). RESULTS: Breastfeeding rates plummeted in Brazil to a historic low in the 1970s. A resurgence in breastfeeding from the mid-1980s onwards reflected strengthening political commitment for a national policy framework and breastfeeding protection law, resulting in-turn, from collective actions by breastfeeding coalitions, advocates, and mothers. Yet more recently, improvements in breastfeeding have plateaued in Brazil, while the industry grew CMF sales in Brazil by 750% between 2006 and 20. As regulations tightened, the industry has more aggressively promoted CMF for older infants and young children, as well as specialised formulas. The baby food industry is empowered through association with powerful industry groups, and employs lobbyists with good access to policymakers. The industry has captured the pediatric profession in Brazil through its long-standing association with the Brazilian Society of Pediatrics. CONCLUSION: Brazil illustrates how the baby food industry uses marketing and political activity to promote and sustain CMF markets, to the detriment of breastfeeding. Our results demonstrate that this industry requires much greater scrutiny by regulators.

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OBJECTIVE: This paper describes the first web-based self-completed 24-h recall designed to categorise food intake according to Nova groups - Nova24h - and its agreement with a reference tool in estimating the dietary relative contribution of the four Nova food groups (% of total energy intake). DESIGN: Comparisons of estimates of dietary relative contributions of Nova groups obtained by Nova24h and one standard interviewer-led 24-h recall. SETTING: Nationwide adult cohort study in Brazil. PARTICIPANTS: The subjects were 186 participants of the NutriNet Brasil Cohort Study (n 186). RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were observed between the Nova24h and the reference tool mean contributions of unprocessed or minimally processed foods (52·3 % v. 52·6 %), processed culinary ingredients (11·6 % v. 11·9 %), processed foods (17·1 % v. 14·7 %) and ultra-processed foods (19·0 % v. 20·9 %). Intraclass correlation coefficients between individual estimates obtained for each Nova group showed moderate to good agreement (0·54-0·78). Substantial or almost perfect agreement between the tools was seen regarding the ability to rank participants according to quintiles of contribution of each Nova group (PABAK 0·69-0·81). CONCLUSIONS: Nova24h is a suitable tool for estimating the dietary relative energy contribution of Nova food groups in the NutriNet Brasil cohort. New studies are necessary to verify its adequacy in other populations.

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Objectives: This study aimed to examine and compare the extent to which different nutrient profile models (NPMs) from Latin America (LA) identify packaged foods and beverages with child-directed marketing sold in Brazil as being high in nutrients associated to the risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Materials and methods: In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated 3,464 foods found in the five largest Brazilian supermarkets. Child-directed marketing was coded using the International Network for Food and Obesity/NCDs Research, Monitoring and Action Support (INFORMAS) protocol. Differences in medians of sugar, saturated fats, and sodium per 100 kcal in foods, with the presence and absence of child-directed marketing, were tested using the Mann-Whitney test. We compared six NPMs in LA and examined to what extent they targeted these products using prevalence ratios. Analyses were performed overall and by the degree of food processing according to the Nova food classification. Results: We found 1,054 packages with child-directed marketing. Among these, candies, cakes and pies, sauces and creams, and sugar-sweetened beverages were significantly higher in sugar, saturated fat, and sodium per 100 kcal than products that are not targeted at children (p < 0.05). Compared with PAHO and the Mexico models, the Brazilian NPMs would allow three times more ultra-processed foods to omit warnings for sodium (p < 0.05). The Uruguayan NPM also flagged fewer ultra-processed foods high in sodium (p < 0.05). The Brazilian model also allows four times more sugar-sweetened beverages and six times more dairy drinks to omit warnings for sugar than the Mexico and PAHO models. In comparison to all other NPMs, the Brazilian model showed the worst performance in identifying baked goods as high in sodium. Chile, Uruguay, and Peru models would also target significantly less sugar-sweetened beverages and high in at least one critical nutrient than PAHO and Mexico models. Conclusion: Compared with other NPMs in LA, the NPM criteria adopted in Brazil are more permissive and less likely to inform consumers of the poor nutritional quality of ultra-processed foods and beverages with child-directed marketing.

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The current study aims to describe the consumption of ultra-processed foods, from 2 to 4 years old, and evaluate its association with growth outcomes during the same period. It is a prospective cohort study using data from the 2015 Pelotas-Brazil Birth Cohort. Outcomes assessed at the 2- and 4-year-old follow-ups were BMI-for-age Z-score and length/height-for-age Z-score. The exposure was a score of ultra-processed food consumption calculated at each follow-up by summing up the positive answers for the consumption of nine specific items/subgroups of ultra-processed foods: (i) instant noodles; (ii) soft drink; (iii) chocolate powder in milk; (iv) nuggets, hamburger or sausages; (v) packaged salty snacks; (vi) candies, lollipops, chewing gum, chocolate or jelly; (vii) sandwich cookie or sweet biscuit; (viii) juice in can or box or prepared from a powdered mix and (ix) yogurt. Crude and adjusted analyses between the score of ultra-processed foods and the outcomes were run using generalised estimating equations. Prevalence of consumption of ultra-processed foods increased from 2 to 4 years old, for all evaluated items/subgroups, except yogurt. In prospective analyses, higher scores of ultra-processed food consumption were associated with higher BMI-for-age Z-score and lower length/height-for-age Z-score, after adjustment for confounders. Ultra-processed food consumption, measured using a short questionnaire with low research burden, increased from 2 to 4 years old and was related to deleterious growth outcomes in early childhood. These results reinforce the importance of avoiding the consumption of these products in childhood to prevent the double burden of malnutrition and non-communicable chronic diseases throughout the life.

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OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine associations between consumption of ultraprocessed food (UPF) and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in a sample of term and preterm infants. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 43 preterm infants (<34 wk), chronological age between 9 and 24 mo, were compared with a group of 47 healthy term infants of the same age. Data were collected on dietary intake, anthropometric measures, and serum CRP level (mg/L). The main exposure of interest was the consumption of UPF (excluding all types of milk), measured as the percentage of total energy intake. RESULTS: The mean birth weight, gestational age, and corrected age were 1,245 ± 381.7 g, 29.9 ± 2.3 wk, and 14.3 ± 6.4 mo, respectively, in the preterm group. Infants in the preterm group consumed UPF less frequently (27-67.5% versus 40-87.0%; P = 0.038) but in a greater amount relative to total energy intake (39.8% [19.1-59.1%]) versus 29.0% (14.5- 41.9%; P = 0.040) when compared with the term group. There was no statistically significant difference between the preterm and term groups regarding CRP levels. The consumption of UPF (percentage of energy intake) was independently associated with CRP levels (ß = 0.007; 95% CI, 0.001-0.014; P = 0.034). A significant interaction between being born preterm and UPF consumption was found for CRP levels (P = 0.049). Breast-feeding was not associated with lower consumption of UPF in both groups (24-75.0% versus 43-79.6%; P = 0.404). CONCLUSIONS: There is a positive relationship between UPF and CRP levels among infants, irrespective of excess weight. At the clinical practice level, a better comprehension of the associations between food processing and chronic inflammation may aid in individual dietary guidance.

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This study assessed associations between ultraprocessed food consumption and dietary nutrient profile linked to obesity in children and adolescents in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States using nationally representative data collected between 2004 and 2014. Linear regression models were used to evaluate associations between dietary share of ultraprocessed foods (country and age group-specific quintiles and a 10% share increase) and the energy density of diets and their content of free sugars and fiber. Ultraprocessed foods, defined by the NOVA system, ranged from 18% of total energy intake among preschool children in Colombia to 68% among adolescents in the United Kingdom. In almost all countries and age groups, increases in the dietary share of ultraprocessed foods were associated with increases in energy density and free sugars and decreases in fiber, suggesting that ultraprocessed food consumption is a potential determinant of obesity in children and adolescents. Effective global policy action to address growing ultraprocessed food consumption and childhood obesity is urgently needed.

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BACKGROUND: The marketing practices of the breastmilk substitutes industry have been known for decades, but little is known about the influence of the baby food industry, more generally, on public health policy, research and practice, also known as 'corporate political activity' (CPA). In this study, the baby food industry refers to for-profit companies that manufacture, market or distribute breastmilk substitutes and food products for infants and young children under two years. In addition, trade associations, public relations firms, marketing agencies and individuals or groups affiliated with the baby food industry are also considered to be part of the baby food industry. The aim of the current study was to systematically identify and monitor the CPA of the baby food industry in the USA, shown by the activities of Nestlé, the largest industry actor in this sector in the country. METHODS: The case study consisted of an analysis of publicly available information for data published between January and November 2018. We included documents from the industry, the government and other sources, including professional organisations, charities and consumer associations. We analysed data using an existing framework to classify the CPA of the food industry. RESULTS: During the period of data collection, Nestlé employed a list of action-based 'instrumental strategies'. The most prominent strategy was 'information strategy', used to fund, produce and disseminate industry-preferred information. Nestlé was further found to 'establish relationships with key opinion leaders and health organisations, and the media', 'seek involvement in community' and directly influence policies and programs through indirect access and the placement of actors in government policy settings. The company also used argument-based 'discursive strategies' to frame the debate on diet- and public health-related issues. CONCLUSION: This study showed that Nestlé used various CPA strategies which may have influenced public health policy, research and practice in ways favourable to the baby food industry. These results could be used to further recognise and pre-empt the influence of corporations on health, in order to ensure that commercial interests do not prevail over public health goals.

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OBJECTIVE: To characterize complementary feeding and to analyze the influence of individual and contextual factors on dietary practices of low birth weight infants. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 2,370 low birth weight infants aged 6 to 12 months included in the Breastfeeding Prevalence Survey in Brazilian Municipalities (2008), which covered the 26 state capitals, the Federal District and 37 municipalities. Dietary practices were assessed using two indicators: I) dietary diversity, characterized by the consumption of five food groups: meat, beans, vegetables, fruit and milk; II) consumption of ultra-processed foods, characterized by the ingestion of at least one of the following foods on the day prior to the survey: soda, or processed juice, or cookie, cracker and crisps. The covariates of interest were the socioeconomic characteristics of infants, mothers and health services. The contextual factor was the "municipal prevalence of child undernutrition." The individualized effect of the study factors on outcomes was assessed by multilevel Poisson regression. RESULTS: Approximately 59% of infants consumed ultra-processed foods, while 29% had diverse feeding. Mothers living in municipalities with child undernutrition prevalence below 10%, with higher education and working outside the home were more likely to offer dietary diversity. Consumption of ultra-processed foods was higher among infants living in municipalities with child undernutrition prevalence below 10%, whose mothers were younger and multiparous. CONCLUSIONS: The low prevalence of diverse feeding combined with the high prevalence of ultra-processed food consumption characterizes the low quality of feeding of low birth weight Brazilian infants. Individual and contextual factors impact the feeding quality of this population, suggesting the need for effective strategies to increase the consumption of fresh and minimally processed foods and decrease the consumption of ultra-processed foods by this vulnerable population.

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ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To characterize complementary feeding and to analyze the influence of individual and contextual factors on dietary practices of low birth weight infants. METHODS This cross-sectional study included 2,370 low birth weight infants aged 6 to 12 months included in the Breastfeeding Prevalence Survey in Brazilian Municipalities (2008), which covered the 26 state capitals, the Federal District and 37 municipalities. Dietary practices were assessed using two indicators: I) dietary diversity, characterized by the consumption of five food groups: meat, beans, vegetables, fruit and milk; II) consumption of ultra-processed foods, characterized by the ingestion of at least one of the following foods on the day prior to the survey: soda, or processed juice, or cookie, cracker and crisps. The covariates of interest were the socioeconomic characteristics of infants, mothers and health services. The contextual factor was the "municipal prevalence of child undernutrition." The individualized effect of the study factors on outcomes was assessed by multilevel Poisson regression. RESULTS Approximately 59% of infants consumed ultra-processed foods, while 29% had diverse feeding. Mothers living in municipalities with child undernutrition prevalence below 10%, with higher education and working outside the home were more likely to offer dietary diversity. Consumption of ultra-processed foods was higher among infants living in municipalities with child undernutrition prevalence below 10%, whose mothers were younger and multiparous. CONCLUSIONS The low prevalence of diverse feeding combined with the high prevalence of ultra-processed food consumption characterizes the low quality of feeding of low birth weight Brazilian infants. Individual and contextual factors impact the feeding quality of this population, suggesting the need for effective strategies to increase the consumption of fresh and minimally processed foods and decrease the consumption of ultra-processed foods by this vulnerable population.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Caracterizar a alimentação complementar e analisar a influência de fatores individuais e contextuais sobre práticas alimentares de lactentes que nasceram com baixo peso. MÉTODOS Este estudo transversal incluiu 2.370 lactentes nascidos com baixo peso e com idade entre 6 e 12 meses incluídos na Pesquisa de Prevalência de Aleitamento Materno em Municípios Brasileiros (2008), que abrangeu as 26 capitais, o Distrito Federal e mais 37 municípios. As práticas alimentares foram avaliadas usando dois indicadores: i) diversidade alimentar, caracterizada pelo consumo dos cinco grupos alimentares: carnes, feijão, legumes e verduras, frutas e leite; ii) consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados, caracterizado pela ingestão de pelo menos um dos seguintes alimentos no dia anterior à pesquisa: refrigerante, ou suco industrializado, ou bolacha, biscoito e salgadinho. As covariáveis de interesse corresponderam às características socioeconômicas, dos lactentes, das mães e dos serviços de saúde. O fator contextual foi a "prevalência municipal de desnutrição infantil". O efeito individualizado dos fatores de estudo sobre os desfechos foi avaliado mediante regressão de Poisson com estrutura multinível. RESULTADOS Aproximadamente 59% dos lactentes consumiram alimentos ultraprocessados, enquanto 29% apresentaram diversidade alimentar. Mães que residiam em municípios com prevalência de desnutrição infantil inferior a 10%, com maior nível de escolaridade e que trabalhavam fora de casa foram mais propensas a oferecer diversidade alimentar. O consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados foi maior entre lactentes residentes em municípios com prevalência de desnutrição infantil inferior a 10%, cujas mães eram mais jovens e multíparas. CONCLUSÕES A baixa prevalência de alimentação diversa aliada à alta prevalência do consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados caracteriza a baixa qualidade da alimentação dos lactentes brasileiros com baixo peso ao nascer. Fatores individuais e contextuais impactam a qualidade da alimentação dessa população, sugerindo a necessidade de adoção de estratégias eficazes para aumentar o consumo de alimentos in natura e minimamente processados e diminuir o consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados por esta população vulnerável.

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