RESUMO
Costa Rica is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, and stands out for its commitment to conservation. Along its two coasts, it presents a great heterogeneity of ecosystems and social realities. Social factors, more than physical-natural factors, determine the success or failure of an MPA, so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. The objective of this work is to analyze the management of three marine protected areas, to establish improvements. These areas are Santa Rosa National Park, Marino Ballena National Park and Cahuita National Park. The methodology used assesses 26 indicators grouped into 4 key factotres: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The results of this evaluation are 5 possible scenarios. These scenarios have been termed (from the ideal situation to the least favourable): proactive (1), learning (2), interactive (3), centralized (4) and formal (5) management. The results of this study show that both Santa Rosa and Cahuita present a proactive scenario (1), with high citizen participation, although in practice the way the two MPAs are managed is very different. Marino Ballena, on the other hand, is in scenario 5 (formal), and a series of measures are presented that can move it towards scenario 2 (learning). In general, MPA management in Costa Rica tends to be adaptive, with high public participation, as determined by its public policies. However, the existence of a public policy favors but does not guarantee success in MPA management, as can be seen in the difference in results. Therefore, the periodic evaluation of its management, allowing for feedback, is essential.
Assuntos
Biodiversidade , Conservação dos Recursos Naturais , Ecossistema , Conservação dos Recursos Naturais/métodos , Costa Rica , Parques RecreativosRESUMO
Abstract Introduction: Coastal ecosystems worldwide are under the influence of local, regional and global stressors, such as pollution, eutrophication and climate change. Golfo Dulce is a relatively pristine and accessible deep tropical ecosystem that provides opportunities for comparative and collaborative research. Objective: To summarize published reports on past research conducted in this ecosystem, identify topics for further study, and suggest new research issues. Methods: A search was made on the web for reports based on research conducted in Golfo Dulce and published in scientific journals. Reports focusing on environmental parameters and on the biota were included. Results: A total of 123 studies that include data from Golfo Dulce are cited. The four topics more frequently addressed were reports based on the results of the R/V Victor Hensen expedition (1993-1994) and follow-up work on microbiology, studies on water parameters, research on vertebrates, and zooplankton studies. The reports focusing on vertical profiles of oxygen and temperature are discussed in detail, followed by those on the biota. Conclusions: Golfo Dulce has low oxygen concentrations below 50 m and is frequently anoxic at the 200 m deep basin with occasional formation of H2S. However, the ecosystem contains a relatively high diversity of identified organisms, from bacteria to whales. Of particular relevance for future studies are multidisciplinary surveys aiming at obtaining data on primary productivity, the diversity and biomass of the main groups of planktonic, demersal and benthic organisms, and the frequency and magnitude of the influx of deep offshore waters over the sill into the basin. These data, as well as the information gathered in the past, are essential for updating the trophic model developed more than 25 years ago and in support of new predictive models on the functioning of the ecosystem.
Resumen Introducción: Los ecosistemas costeros alrededor del mundo están bajo la influencia de tensores locales, regionales y globales, como la contaminación, la eutroficación y el cambio climático. El Golfo Dulce es un profundo ecosistema tropical relativamente inalterado y accesible, que provee oportunidades para la investigación comparativa y colaborativa. Objetivo: Resumir los informes publicados sobre investigaciones pasadas realizadas en el ecosistema, identificar tópicos para estudios futuros y sugerir nuevas áreas de investigación. Métodos: Se hizo una búsqueda en la red de informes basados en investigaciones hechas en Golfo Dulce y publicadas en revistas científicas. Fueron incluidos aquellos informes sobre parámetros ambientales y la biota. Resultados: Un total de 123 estudios que incluyen datos sobre Golfo Dulce son citados. Los cuatro tópicos citados con más frecuencia fueron: Los resultados de la expedición del R/V Victor Hensen (1993-1994) y estudios de seguimiento sobre microbiología, informes sobre parámetros acuáticos, investigaciones sobre vertebrados y estudios sobre zooplancton. Los informes sobre perfiles de oxígeno y temperatura son presentados con mayor detalle, seguidos por aquellos sobre la biota. Conclusiones: Golfo Dulce tiene bajas concentraciones de oxígeno por debajo de 50 m y es usualmente anóxico a 200 m en el fondo, con formación ocasional de H2S. Sin embargo, el ecosistema contiene una diversidad de organismos identificados relativamente alta, desde bacterias hasta ballenas. De relevancia particular para futuros estudios es, entre otros, la conducción, de muestreos multidisciplinarios orientados a obtener datos sobre productividad primaria, la diversidad y biomasa de los principales grupos de organismos planctónicos, demersales y bénticos, así como la frecuencia y magnitud del flujo de agua oceánica hacia el interior. Estos datos, así como los obtenidos en el pasado, son esenciales para actualizar el modelo trófico desarrollado hace más de 25 años, o en apoyo de nuevos modelos predictivos de funcionamiento del ecosistema.
Assuntos
Ecossistema Tropical , Alteração Ambiental , Mudança Climática , Costa RicaRESUMO
Introducción: El Pacífico Norte de Costa Rica se caracteriza por presentar una variación de la temperatura subsuperficial del mar (TSSM) modulada por vientos superficiales de componente este, con variaciones estacionales e intra-estacional. La TSSM es fundamental para las interacciones de la interfase océano-atmósfera y de gran influencia en los procesos biológicos marinos. Los estudios de zooplancton en el Pacífico Norte son escasos y se han enfocado en la composición, abundancia y biomasa de macro y mesozooplanctonen en Bahía Culebra. No se han realizado trabajos sobre zooplancton al norte del Golfo de Papagayo. Objetivo: Analizar la variación del zooplancton de Bahía Salinas a diferentes escalas como respuesta a condiciones oceanográficas-atmosféricas. Métodos: durante algunos meses de los años 2011, 2012 y 2013, el mesozooplancton fue muestreado en siete estaciones siguiendo un gradiente costero-oceánico para determinar su abundancia, biomasa y composición de la comunidad. Se realizaron lances de CTD en cada estación, y se recopilaron datos horarios de la TSSM desde junio de 2003 a diciembre de 2017. Resultados: La temperatura superficial anual en Bahía Salinas es menor en diciembre-abril con un mínimo secundario en julio y mayor en mayo-junio, y agosto-octubre. Los eventos fríos, neutros y cálidos determinados por anomalías en la TSSM, presentaron una distribución de la temperatura en la columna de agua con estratificación horizontal, de mezcla vertical y homogénea, respectivamente. La distribución espacial del zooplancton no presentó diferencias significativas y la variación del promedio total de abundancia y biomasa mostró un comportamiento similar durante el período de estudio, con menor variación en el primer año en comparación con el segundo, siendo los copépodos la categoría predominante para todas las fechas. A escala estacional no se observó un patrón general de variación entre estación seca y lluviosa y, copépodos y otros grupos del zooplancton fueron las categorías que presentaron diferencias. A escala intra-estacional la abundancia y biomasa presentaron una relación inversa con la TSSM y se vieron afectadas de manera diferencial. Los copépodos y zooplancton gelatinoso se diferenciaron en todos los eventos. Conclusiones: El zooplancton de Bahía de Salinas responde de manera diferencial en las diferentes escalas a las condiciones climáticas que afectan la TSSM de la región. La clasificación de las fechas de muestreo en eventos permite caracterizar diferentes perfiles en la columna de agua, así como permite definer patrones de variación para el mesozooplancton, que refleja la adaptación a corto plazo en función de la variación de las condiciones ambientales. El conocimiento generado ayuda a comprender mejor los fenómenos oceanográficos y su efecto sobre las poblaciones de plancton y la biota en general, especialmente en el escenario de cambio climático y las manifestaciones modernas de su impacto, p. e. la acidificación oceánica y pérdida de biodiversidad marina.
Introduction: The North Pacific of Costa Rica is characterized by presenting a variation of the subsurface temperature of the sea (SSST) modulated by surface winds with east component, with seasonal and intra-seasonal variations. The SSST is fundamental for the interactions of the ocean-atmosphere interface and influence marine biological processes. Zooplankton studies in the North Pacific are scarce and have been focused on the composition, abundance and biomass of macro and mesozooplankton in Culebra Bay. No works on zooplankton has been carried out northward of Papagayo Gulf. Objective: To analyze the variation of the zooplankton in Bahía Salinas at different scales in response to oceanographic-atmospheric conditions. Methods: during 2011, 2012 and 2013, mesozooplankton was collected in seven stations following a coastal-ocean gradient to determine abundance, biomass, and community composition. CTD casts were also carried out in each station. Hourly data of the Sea Subsurface Temperature (SSST) were obtained from June 2003 to December 2017. Results: The annual surface temperature in Bahía Salinas was lower in December-April with a secondary minimum in July and higher in May-June and August-November. The cold, neutral and warm events determined by anomalies in the SSST, presented a distribution of the temperature in the water column with horizontal stratification, vertical mixture and homogeneous, respectively. The spatial distribution of zooplankton did not show significant differences and the variation of the total average abundance and biomass showed a similar behavior during the study period, with less variation in the first year compared to the second one, being the copepods the predominant category for all the dates. On a seasonal scale, a general pattern of variation between dry and rainy seasons was not observed, and copepods and others zooplankton groups were the categories that presented differences. On an intra-seasonal scale, abundance and biomass showed an inverse relationship with SST. Copepods and gelatinous zooplankton (GZ) were differentiated in all events. Conclusions: The zooplankton of Bahía Salinas respond differentially at different scales to the climatic conditions that affect the SSST of the region. The classification of the sampling dates into events allows characterizing different profiles in the water column it also allows to define the variation patterns for mesozooplankton that reflects short-term adaptation as a function of variation in environmental conditions. These findings help to understand how oceanographic processes determine plankton community composition and biota in general. This is relevant in times of climate change and the manifestation of its impact through processes such as ocean acidification and loss of marine biodiversity.
Assuntos
Zooplâncton , Mudança Climática , Costa Rica , OceanografiaRESUMO
Introduction: Zooplankton is a major link between primary producers and the following trophic levels, and in coral reefs they represent an energy source for corals and involve complex assemblies integrating a wide variety of species form different functional groups. Objective: To define interannual changes in zooplankton assemblies in coral reefs of Isla del Coco. Methods: Three coral reefs system were sampled. Two or three samples were taken by surface horizontal trawls in each coral reef from 2009 to 2012, using conical zooplankton nets of 200 and 500 µm mesh sizes at different times of the day. Physical and chemical variables were measured before zooplankton sampling. Results: We identified 24 taxonomic groups of macrozooplankton and 22 of mesozooplankton. Copepods were the most abundant taxa (87.1%) of the total abundance of mesozooplankton and macrozooplakton (58.9%); however, chaetognaths (35.6%) exceeded copepods (35.4%) in abundance in macrozooplankton samples during 2011. Mesozooplankton samples showed higher abundance (68753.2±9123.2 ind m-3) and biomass (85.14±11.3 mg DW m-3) than macrozooplankton samples (4454.9±751.0 ind m-3, 22.8±3.8 mg DW m-3). The interannual macrozooplankton community structure did not change significantly (ANOVA, p=0.368), but did change for mesozooplankton (ANOVA, p=0.001). Variations in physical and chemical variables influenced the community structure for both meso and macrozooplankton, increasing or decreasing organism abundance. Conclusions: Coral reef zooplankton of Isla del Coco resembles that of other coral reefs under the influence of oceanic conditions, with a fauna formed mainly by calanoid copepods, chaetognaths and appendicularians, and depending on oceanographic conditions, the abundance of these groups can change.
Introducción: El zooplancton es el principal enlace entre los productores primarios y los siguientes niveles de la cadena trófica, en los arrecifes de coral representa una importante fuente de alimento, en estos ambientes comprende una amplia variedad de especies de diferentes grupos funcionales. Métodos: En el presente trabajo se analiza la estructura de la comunidad del zooplancton asociado a los sistemas arrecifales de la Isla del Coco, sus variaciones interanuales y como las variables físicas y químicas en diferentes épocas influencian la composición de especies. Las muestras se colectaron sobre los parches de arrecife de Bahía Weston, Bahía Wafer y Bahía Chatham en el sector norte de la Isla, en cuatro periodos, en 2009 a 2012, se realizaron arrastres horizontales con redes cilindro cónicas de 200 y 500 µm tamaño de poro, durante tres e cinco minutos respectivamente a diferentes horas del día. Resultados: Se identificaron 24 grupos taxonómicos dentro del Macrozooplancton y 22 dentro del Mesozooplancton. Mayores abundancias y biomasas se registraron en el Mesozooplancton. Copépodos, apendicularias e quetognatos fueron los grupos más abundantes, siendo afectadas sus abundancias por las variaciones en las variables físicas y químicas. Conclusiones: La comunidad zooplanctónica de los arrecifes coralinos en la Isla del Coco es semejante a aquellos sistemas arrecifales de zonas oceánicas bajo la influencia de aguas oceánicas, con una fauna conformada principalmente por copépodos, quetognatos y apendicularias y que dependiendo de las características oceanográficas imperantes las abundancias de estos grupos pueden cambiar.
RESUMO
Introduction: Zooplankton is a major link in coral reef food webs and a source of nutrients for corals. Demersal zooplankton in coral reefs makes diel migrations at night to avoid predation by fish and corals, increasing abundance and biomass at night. Objectives: To study the composition and variation of the demersal and pelagic zooplankton community at night and to increase the taxonomic knowledge of the benthic copepod fauna over different substrates of a coral reef. Methods: Traps made of plastic, with a 100 μm mesh size collector cup attached, were placed for 12 hours between 5-10 m depth over four substrates: (1) sand, (2) small and (3) big colonies of Porites lobata, and (4) dead and alive corals. Sampling started at dusk (1800 h), and the collector cups were collected and replaced at 2100 and 0000, and the last samples removed at down (0600 h). Results: The highest abundance of zooplankton was capture over P. lobata colonies between 0000 to 0600 h. Copepods (adults, copepodites, and nauplii) dominated the community structure and were more abundant during all the time intervals and substrates. Pelagic copepods were more abundant than the benthic, however, not more diverse. Among the benthic copepods, 20 new records of harpacticoids and calanoids were registered for Isla del Coco and Costa Rican waters. Appendicularians and decapod larvae were also abundant. Changes in coral reef community structure were related with time and not with the kind of substrate, although some taxa were found only in a specific time interval or substrate. Conclusions: Community structure and abundance of demersal and pelagic coral reef zooplankton in Chatham Bay were dominated by copepods, larvaceans and decapod larvae, similar to other coral reefs around the world. The highest abundance peak of organisms in the water column between 0000 to 0600 h could be related to diel migration.
Introducción: El zooplancton demersal en los arrecifes de coral diariamente realiza migraciones diarias durante la noche para evitar ser depredados, su abundancia y su biomasa aumentan durante la noche. Objetivos: Registrar la composición y la variación del zooplancton pelágico-demersal durante la noche y aumentar el conocimiento taxonómico de la fauna de copépodos bénticos sobre diferentes sustratos de un arrecifes de coral. Métodos: El zooplancton asociado a diferentes sustratos fue colectado usando trampas en forma de cono confeccionadas con una bolsa plástica y un copo colector de zooplancton de 100 μm, las trampas se ubicaron sobre cuatro tipos de sustratos en un arrecife de coral: (1) arena, (2) colonias pequeñas y (3) grandes de Porites lobata, y (4) coral vivo y muerto ubicadas entra 5 y 10 m de profundidad. El muestreo fue realizado durante 12 horas, las trampas fueron colocadas a las 1800 h y los copos colectores se cambiaron a las 2100, 0000 y 0600 h. Resultados: Los copépodos (adultos, copepoditos y nauplios) dominaron la composición y fueron más abundantes en todos los intervalos de tiempo y cada uno de los sustratos. Los copépodos pelágicos fueron más abundantes pero no más diversos que los bentónicos. Dentro de los copépodos bénticos recolectados, 20 nuevos registros fueron identificados para las aguas de la Isla del Coco y Costa Rica. Los cambios en la estructura de la comunidad del zooplancton de los arrecifes de coral se relacionaron con el intervalo tiempo de muestreo y no con el tipo de sustrato en que fue colocado la red. Conclusiones: La composición de la comunidad y la abundancia de zooplancton pelágico-demersal en los arrecifes de coral de Bahía Chatham fueron dominadas por copépodos, larvaceos y larvas de decápodos, similar a otros arrecifes de coral alrededor del mundo. El intervalo de tiempo con la mayor abundancia de organismos fue el de 0000 a 0600 h, este pico de abundancia puede estar relacionado con la migración vertical.
RESUMO
Abstract:Coral reef zooplankton represents a key community in coral ecosystems, as they are involved in trophic and biogeochemical dynamics, and recruitment processes. Zooplankton abundance, composition and biomass were surveyed at six stations within the coral reef at Cahuita National Park, Limon, Costa Rica, in order to compare with the only previous study conducted during 1984. Samples were collected monthly (September 2010-August 2011). Seston biomass (0.49-85.87 mg/m3) and total abundance (1 145-112 422 ind./ m3) fluctuated among the months and the stations. Higher values of these two variables were found in the rainiest months (November 2010 and May 2011). A total of 38 taxa were identified, of which calanoid copepods abundance dominated year round (66 %), followed by appendicularians (12 %). Zooplankton mean abundance in this survey resulted 20 times higher (13 184 ± 4 104 ind./m3) than in 1984 (645 ± 84 ind./m3). Copepods and appendicularians were the groups that differed the most, relative to the 1984 study, resulting in 63 and 170 times more abundant overall, respectively. An increase in terrestrial runoff and nutrient input during the past 30 years could explain these differences. High abundances of zooplankton may constitute an important food source for coral reef organisms in Cahuita ecosystem. In addition, zooplankton abundances here reported for Cahuita are among the worldwide highest coral reef zooplankton abundances, and further trophic models can help elucidate its role in coral reef resilience in the Caribbean Coast of Central America.
ResumenEl grupo de zooplancton representa una comunidad clave en los arrecifes de coral. Está involucrado en dinámicas tróficas y biogeoquímicas, y en procesos de reclutamiento. La abundancia, composición y biomasa del zooplancton fueron estudiadas en seis estaciones dentro del arrecife coralino del Parque Nacional Cahuita, para compararlas con el único estudio realizado durante 1984. Las muestras se recolectaron mensualmente (Septiembre 2010-Agosto 2011). La biomasa del seston (0.49-85.87 mg/m3) y la abundancia total (1 145-112 422 ind./m3) fluctuaron entre meses y estaciones. Los valores más altos se encontraron durante los meses más lluviosos (Noviembre 2010 y Mayo 2011). Treinta y ocho taxones fueron identificados, copépodos calanoidos (66 %) y apendicularias (12 %) dominaron la abundancia durante todo el año. La abundancia promedio en este estudio fue 20 veces más alta (13 184 ± 4 104 ind./m3) que en 1984 (645 ± 84 ind./m3). Copépodos y apendicularias fueron los grupos con mayor discrepancia con respecto al estudio de 1984. Un aumento en la descarga de nutrientes de origen terrestre, podría explicar estas grandes diferencias. Abundancias tan altas de zooplancton podrían constituir una importante fuente de alimento para los organismos del arrecife en Cahuita. Las abundancias aquí reportadas colocan al arrecife de Cahuita entre los arrecifes de coral con mayor abundancia de zooplancton en el mundo y estudios futuros en redes tróficas podrían elucidar el papel de esta comunidad en procesos de resiliencia en los arrecifes del Caribe centroamericano.
Assuntos
Animais , Zooplâncton/fisiologia , Biomassa , Recifes de Corais , Larva/fisiologia , Estações do Ano , Tempo (Meteorologia) , Dinâmica Populacional , Análise de Variância , Densidade Demográfica , Região do Caribe , Estatísticas não Paramétricas , Costa Rica , Crustáceos/fisiologia , Moluscos/fisiologiaRESUMO
Coral reef zooplankton represents a key community in coral ecosystems, as they are involved in trophic and biogeochemical dynamics, and recruitment processes. Zooplankton abundance, composition and biomass were surveyed at six stations within the coral reef at Cahuita National Park, Limon, Costa Rica, in order to compare with the only previous study conducted during 1984. Samples were collected monthly (September 2010-August 2011). Seston biomass (0.49-85.87 mg/m3) and total abundance (1 145-112 422 ind./m3) fluctuated among the months and the stations. Higher values of these two variables were found in the rainiest months (November 2010 and May 2011). A total of 38 taxa were identified, of which calanoid copepods abundance dominated year round (66 %), followed by appendicularians (12 %). Zooplankton mean abundance in this survey resulted 20 times higher (13 184 ± 4 104 ind./m3)than in 1984 (645 ± 84 ind./m3). Copepods and appendicularians were the groups that differed the most, relative to the 1984 study, resulting in 63 and 170 times more abundant overall, respectively. An increase in terrestrial runoff and nutrient input during the past 30 years could explain these differences. High abundances of zooplankton may constitute an important food source for coral reef organisms in Cahuita ecosystem. In addition, zooplankton abundances here reported for Cahuita are among the worldwide highest coral reef zooplankton abundances, and further trophic models can help elucidate its role in coral reef resilience in the Caribbean Coast of Central America.
Assuntos
Biomassa , Recifes de Corais , Larva/fisiologia , Zooplâncton/fisiologia , Análise de Variância , Animais , Região do Caribe , Costa Rica , Crustáceos/fisiologia , Moluscos/fisiologia , Densidade Demográfica , Dinâmica Populacional , Estações do Ano , Estatísticas não Paramétricas , Tempo (Meteorologia)RESUMO
Resumen Se indagó, de septiembre del 2005 a noviembre del 2007, las propiedades oceanográficas físicas, químicas y biológicas (zooplancton) más relevantes del Golfo Dulce, Pacífico Sur de Costa Rica, y las tipologías meteorológicas de la zona, con el objetivo de analizarlas y hacerlas disponibles como referencia en el establecimiento de actividades adecuadas para su conservación, dado que es un ecosistema acuático único en Costa Rica. El patrón de circulación de las aguas en el Golfo Dulce es el típico de estuarios tipo fiordo, con una estratificación de flujo en la columna de agua. Las corrientes marinas superficiales alcanzaron velocidades cercanas a los 18cm/s en la región de entrada al Golfo, que disminuyeron al ampliarse el área del golfo donde las velocidades llegaron a alcanzar poco más de 5cm/s en el extremo noroeste, Rincón. Predominó el flujo superficial de este-oeste, mientras que en la zona de Puerto Jiménez la velocidad fue moderada de 5.4cm/s con dirección sur. Se detectaron velocidades mayores cercanas al umbral de la entrada del golfo (17.8cm/s) y en el fondo el ámbito fue de 2.0cm/s a 4.8cm/s. Se establecieron cinco sitios de muestreo denominados GD1, GD2, GD3, GD4 y GD5, que se visitaron en cinco ocasiones, excepto en GD5 que se visitó solo una vez. No se detectó la ausencia de oxígeno disuelto en las aguas profundas del Golfo (70m a los 140m), aunque las concentraciones fueron bajas (0.25mg/L a 1.10mg/L). La distribución de las concentraciones de los nutrimentos reflejó los patrones usuales para sistemas estuarinos a nivel horizontal, y a nivel vertical las concentraciones de fosfato y silicato fueron mayores al descender en la columna de agua, tanto en la estación lluviosa como en la seca. La descomposición de la materia orgánica fue evidente puesto que las concentraciones de nitrato fueron incrementándose en las aguas profundas. De los datos de concentración de nutrimentos, se deduce que el Golfo Dulce puede ser considerado como un cuerpo de agua que se mantiene en un estado de muy buena calidad ambiental. El grupo zooplánctico dominante fue el de los copédodos (44%-83.6%). Los vientos oeste ecuatoriales se detectaron en junio y fueron más intensos entre septiembre y octubre, lo que correspondió con promedios altos de altura de las olas. A su vez, los vientos alisios de diciembre a abril disminuyeron la energía del oleaje que entra al golfo y por lo tanto la altura promedio de las olas. El ciclo anual de la precipitación fue un patrón bimodal típico del Pacífico de América Central, con máximos en mayo y octubre, con la interrupción debida al veranillo o canícula, y un mínimo de precipitación ocurrió en febrero. Golfo Dulce es un ambiente único en todo el Pacífico Este Tropical, y aunque parezca mostrar condiciones ambientales saludables, está amenazado por muchas actividades humanas; ante todo urge el establecimiento de políticas de ordenamiento y planificación de las mismas, para proteger el ecosistema bajo los principios de uso sostenible.
Abstract From September 2005 to November 2007 we studied the meteorological typologies and the physical, chemical and zooplankton oceanography of Golfo Dulce, a unique aquatic ecosystem in the South Pacific of Costa Rica. The water circulation pattern in Golfo Dulce is typical of fjord-type estuaries, with flux stratification within the water column. Surface water currents reached speeds near 18cm/s in the vicinity of the sill and diminished inward to the northwest at around 5cm/s. The east-west flux was predominant, whereas near Puerto Jiménez the speed was a moderated 5.4cm/s with a south direction. Higher speeds were found near the sill (17.8cm/s) and at the bottom (2.0cm/s to 4.8cm/s). One station was visited once, five were visited five times each. Dissolved oxygen was not absent in deep waters (70m to 140m), but concentrations were low (0.25mg/L to 1.10mg/L). Nutrient concentrations and distribution had the usual horizontal estuarine patterns and for the vertical level phosphate and silicate concentrations increased with depth. Decomposition of organic matter was evident because nitrate concentrations were higher in deep waters. Surface nutrient concentrations indicated the gulf has good environmental quality that sustains a variety of life. Copepods dominated zooplankton (44%83.6%). The strongest equatorial westerlies were detected between September and October, coincident with higher wave heights. The trade winds blowing from December to April reduced the energy of entering waves and therefore the mean wave height. The annual rainfall cycle was the typical bimodal pattern from the Central America Pacific, with maxima in May and October, except for the midsummer interruption, and minimum rain was on February. Golfo Dulce is a unique environment in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, shows healthy environmental conditions, and is threatened; therefore we urge the establishment of zoning policy for human activities, and to improve protection under the principles of sustainable use. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (Suppl. 1): 131-160. Epub 2015 April 01.
Assuntos
Zooplâncton/classificação , Correntes Marinhas/análise , Nível de Oxigênio/análise , Química Oceanográfica/análise , Oceanografia , Oceanografia , Oceanografia , Gestão Ambiental/tendências , Conservação dos Recursos Naturais , Costa RicaRESUMO
The studies on marine copepods of Costa Rica started in the 1990's and focused on the largest coastal-estuarine systems in the country, particularly along the Pacific coast. Diversity is widely variable among these systems: 40 species have been recorded in the Culebra Bay influenced by upwelling, northern Pacific coast, only 12 in the Gulf of Nicoya estuarine system, and 38 in Golfo Dulce, an anoxic basin in the southern Pacific coast of the country. Freshwater environments of Costa Rica are known to harbor a moderate diversity of continental copepods (25 species), which includes 6 calanoids, 17 cyclopoids and only two harpacticoids. Of the +100 freshwater species recorded in Central America, six are known only from Costa Rica, and one appears to be endemic to this country. The freshwater copepod fauna of Costa Rica is clearly the best known in Central America. Overall, six of the 10 orders of Copepoda are reported from Costa Rica. A previous summary by 2001 of the free-living copepod diversity in the country included 80 marine species (67 pelagic, 13 benthic). By 2009, the number of marine species increased to 209: 164 from the Pacific (49% of the copepod fauna from the Eastern Tropical Pacific) and 45 from the Caribbean coast (8% of species known from the Caribbean Basin). Both the Caribbean and Pacific species lists are growing. Additional collections of copepods at Cocos Island, an oceanic island 530 km away of the Pacific coast, have revealed many new records, including five new marine species from Costa Rica. Currently, the known diversity of marine copepods of Costa Rica is still in development and represents up to 52.6% of the total marine microcrustaceans recorded in the country. Future sampling and taxonomic efforts in the marine habitats should emphasize oceanic environments including deep waters but also littoral communities. Several Costa Rican records of freshwater copepods are likely to represent undescribed species. Also, the biogeographic relevance of the inland copepod fauna of Costa Rica requires more detailed surveys.
RESUMO
Early diagnosis of dengue virus (DENV) infection represents a key factor in preventing clinical complications attributed to the disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the amplification efficiencies of an in-house quantitative real time-PCR (qPCR) assay of DENV, using the non-structural conserved genomic region protein-5 (NS5) versus two genomic regions usually employed for virus detection, the capsid/pre-membrane region (C-prM) and the 3'-noncoding region (3'NC). One-hundred sixty seven acute phase serum samples from febrile patients were used for validation purposes. Results showed that the three genomic regions had similar amplification profiles and correlation coefficients (0.987-0.999). When isolated viruses were used, the NS5 region had the highest qPCR efficiencies for the four serotypes (98-100%). Amplification from acute serum samples showed that 41.1% (67/167) were positive for the universal assay by at least two of the selected genomic regions. The agreement rates between NS5/C-prM and NS5/3'NC regions were 56.7% and 97%, respectively. Amplification concordance values between C-prM/NS5 and NS5/3'NC regions showed a weak (kappa = 0.109; CI 95%) and a moderate (kappa = 0.489; CI 95%) efficiencies in amplification, respectively. Serotyping assay using a singleplex NS5-TaqMan format was much more sensitive than the C-prM/SYBR Green I protocol (76%). External evaluation showed a high sensitivity (100%), specificity (78%) and high agreement between the assays. According to the results, the NS5 genomic region provides the best genomic region for optimal detection and typification of DENV in clinical samples.