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In 1973, the National Rabies Program was created in Brazil through an agreement between the Ministry of Health and Agriculture. Since its beginning, it developed integrated action through access to free post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for people at risk, dog vaccination campaigns, a joint surveillance system, and awareness. This study aims to describe human rabies in Brazil under the One Health perspective in recent decades, including achievements in the control of dog-mediated cases and challenges in human cases transmitted by wild animals. This paper also explores possible drivers of human rabies in the Northeast Region with half of the cases. The first part of this study was descriptive, presenting data and examples by periods. Statistical analysis was performed in the last period (2010-2022) to explore possible drivers. Dog-mediated human cases decreased from 147 to 0, and dog cases decreased from 4500 to 7. A major challenge is now human cases transmitted by wild animals (bats, non-human primates, and wild canids). Most current human cases occur in municipalities with a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest biome and a Gini index higher than 0.5. In the multivariable analysis, an association with temperature was estimated (OR = 1.739; CI95% = 1.181-2.744), and primary healthcare coverage (OR = 0.947; CI95% = 0.915-0.987) was identified as a protector. It is possible to significantly reduce the number of dog-mediated human rabies cases through the efforts presented. However, Brazil has wildlife variants of the rabies virus circulating. The association of human cases with higher temperatures in the Northeast is a concern with climate change. To reduce human cases transmitted by wild animals, it is important to continue distributing free PEP, especially in remote at-risk areas in the Amazon Region, and to increase awareness.

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Rabies transmitted by sylvatic populations has become an increasing concern in Brazil. A total of 113 participants with a history of contact with sylvatic populations were interviewed in 27 municipalities of Ceará State in northeast Brazil. Questionnaires included questions on knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) regarding sylvatic rabies. Most of the respondents (92%) knew about rabies and confirmed at least one species that transmitted the disease (79.6%). Of these respondents, 69% mentioned monkeys, and 67.2% mentioned dogs. However, 16% of the respondents listed an incorrect species. In general, knowledge on the symptoms and signs and on prevention measures was weak. The majority raised pets (93.8%), most commonly dogs and cats, and, of all the pets, 85.7% were claimed to be vaccinated against rabies. A total of 67.3% reported the appearance of free-living wild animals around their houses, mostly marmosets and wild canids; 18.3% reported that sylvatic populations had attacked animals or humans. Seventy-three percent had raised or still were raising wild animals as pets, mostly capuchin monkeys (79.5%) and marmosets (24.1%). This is the first KAP study on sylvatic rabies in Brazil. The data indicate important knowledge gaps and risk behavior within a high-risk population. There is a need for strengthening and improving sylvatic rabies surveillance and control, combined with the intensification of education and information campaigns.

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In Brazil, rabies occurs mainly within an urban cycle, in which dogs and bats are reservoirs. This paper aims to report the occurrence of rabies in Callithrix sp. in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In June 2019 a hybrid specimen was referred for diagnosis. The Direct Fluorescent Antibody, Mouse Inoculation, and Polymerase Chain Reaction tests were positive. A phylogenetic analysis was compatible with antigenic variant 3, characteristic of Desmodus rotundus. New studies should be undertaken to elucidate the real role of callitrichids in the urban rabies cycle.

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The intensification of dog, cat and livestock vaccination campaigns significantly reduced rabies cases in humans and domestic animals in Ceará State, Brazil. However, sylvatic animals-bats (order Chiroptera), wild canids, raccoons and non-human primates- remain as reservoirs for the virus. Our hypothesis is that surveillance and monitoring of rabies virus in bats, especially passive surveillance, is of fundamental importance, besides the implementation of health education and strengthening of surveillance actions in humans exposed to aggressions. Thus, we assessed the occurrence of rabies virus in animals focusing on bats, before and after launching of the Sylvatic Rabies Surveillance Program in 2010. Surveillance data from the 184 municipalities of Ceará State were analysed, collected during the periods 2003-2010 (active surveillance) and 2011-2016 (passive surveillance), respectively. A total of 13,543 mammalian samples were received for rabies diagnosis from 2003 to 2016. Of these, 10,960 were from dogs or cats (80.9%), 1,180 from bats (8.7%), 806 from other sylvatic animals (foxes, marmosets, raccoons; 6.0%) and 597 from herbivores (cattle, goats, sheep, equines, pigs; 4.4%). A total of 588 (4.3%) samples were positive for rabies. About 8.4% (99/1,180) of the bat samples were infected with rabies virus, 92 (92.9%) of these were from non-haematophagous bat species and 7 (7.1%) from haematophagous species. The number of bat samples received and infection rates increased considerably, after a shift from active surveillance (9/355 [2.5%] samples positive), to passive surveillance (90/825 [10.9%] samples positive). Surveillance of rabies virus in bats is fundamental for human and domestic animal health in Ceará State. Bats have to be considered as targets in surveillance and control programmes. Virus lineages should be characterized to increase knowledge on transmission dynamics of sylvatic rabies virus to domestic animals and the human population, and to provide additional evidence for planning and implementation of improved control measures.

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Abstract In Brazil, rabies occurs mainly within an urban cycle, in which dogs and bats are reservoirs. This paper aims to report the occurrence of rabies in Callithrix sp. in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In June 2019 a hybrid specimen was referred for diagnosis. The Direct Fluorescent Antibody, Mouse Inoculation, and Polymerase Chain Reaction tests were positive. A phylogenetic analysis was compatible with antigenic variant 3, characteristic of Desmodus rotundus. New studies should be undertaken to elucidate the real role of callitrichids in the urban rabies cycle.

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A presença de colônias de morcegos não hematófagos no perímetro urbano deve-se, principalmente, a desequilíbrios ambientais nos ecossistemas. O presente artigo tem por objetivo alertar sobre as possíveis consequências derivadas na detecção do vírus da Raiva em morcegos não hematófagos no perímetro urbano do município de Niterói, no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. No período de janeiro a dezembro de 2018, quirópteros representaram 21 % das amostras enviadas para diagnóstico da Raiva ao Laboratório de Virologia do Centro Estadual de Pesquisa em Sanidade Animal Geraldo Manhães Carneiro (CEPGM) da Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária do Estado o Rio de Janeiro (PESAGRO-RIO), vinculada à Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura ,Pecuária, Pesca e Abastecimento. Apresentaram diagnóstico positivo para a doença em questão, 23% das amostras de morcegos submetidas às provas de imunofluorescência direta (IFD) e prova biológica (inoculação em camundongos), para pesquisa do vírus rábico. Os quirópteros positivos para a referida zoonose eram do gênero Artibeus. No Estado do Rio de Janeiro, há mais duas décadas não são detectados casos de Raiva em caninos e felinos, podendo caracterizar controle da variante 2, como reflexo das campanhas de vacinação antirrábica com cobertura vacinal de quase 100%. No entanto, a detecção da circulação da variante 3 em áreas urbanas apresenta o risco e a possibilidade de que cães e gatos sejam infectados por esta variante através de morcegos, exigindo a continuidade da vacinação contra a Raiva, em cães e gatos, ficando ainda o alerta para a identificação e medidas profiláticas pós-mordedura de morcegos em humanos.

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INTRODUCTION: In the State of Ceará, a new variant of the rabies virus was identified associated with cases of human rabies transmitted by common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), which are frequently kept as pets. This new variant does not present antigenic proximity or genetic relationship to variants of the virus isolated from bats and terrestrial mammals from the American continent. The present study aimed to evaluate the risk factors of rabies virus transmission from common marmosets (C. jacchus) maintained as pets in the metropolitan region of Fortaleza, State of Ceará, Brazil, to human beings. METHODS: A questionnaire focusing on animal management and interaction between humans and primates was applied to individuals who had marmosets in the municipalities of Aquiraz and Maranguape. In order to evaluate the presence of rabies antigens by direct immunofluorescence test (DIF), samples of saliva were collected from domiciliary captive marmosets. Based on the detection of rabies antigens, biopsy samples of central nervous system (CNS) were analyzed. RESULTS: Analysis of questionnaire data verified that a close relation exists between humans and their pet marmosets, especially during management practices. Additionally, these people showed minimal knowledge regarding rabies, which represents a greater risk of infection. Of the 29 saliva samples evaluated, one (3.4%) was positive for DIF reaction and of the 11 CNS samples, three (27.3%) were positive. CONCLUSIONS: Laboratory data are in agreement with the questionnaire findings, which confirm an increased risk of rabies virus transmission due to the close relation between humans and marmosets.

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Rabies virus cryopreservation has been succinctly described in the scientific literature. The major researches about viral conservation emphasize the rabies diagnosis in decomposed samples. For now few information has been available concerning the use of cryoprotectants for rabies virus cryopreservation. This study aimed at assessing the viability of rabies virus after freezing/thawing procedures and investigating the effect of different concentrations of dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), glycerol (GLY), polyethyleneglycol (PEG) and sucrose (SUC) on rabies virus cryopreservation. Virus viability was assessed by virus isolation based on mouse inoculation test, titration and immunofluorescent antibody assay before and after 30 days of freezing procedures. The rabies virus samples after being exposed to cryopreservation without adding a cryoprotectant, its viability showed to be lower than that observed in samples exposed to other treatments. After 30 days of freezing procedure, the viability of cryopreserved samples using DMSO, GLY or PEG was lower than that observedin fresh samples. In addition, the use of sucrose at 10 or 68 concentrations induced positive effects on the viral particles viability after a short-term cryopreservation.

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Rabies virus cryopreservation has been succinctly described in the scientific literature. The major researches about viral conservation emphasize the rabies diagnosis in decomposed samples. For now few information has been available concerning the use of cryoprotectants for rabies virus cryopreservation. This study aimed at assessing the viability of rabies virus after freezing/thawing procedures and investigating the effect of different concentrations of dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), glycerol (GLY), polyethyleneglycol (PEG) and sucrose (SUC) on rabies virus cryopreservation. Virus viability was assessed by virus isolation based on mouse inoculation test, titration and immunofluorescent antibody assay before and after 30 days of freezing procedures. The rabies virus samples after being exposed to cryopreservation without adding a cryoprotectant, its viability showed to be lower than that observed in samples exposed to other treatments. After 30 days of freezing procedure, the viability of cryopreserved samples using DMSO, GLY or PEG was lower than that observedin fresh samples. In addition, the use of sucrose at 10 or 68 concentrations induced positive effects on the viral particles viability after a short-term cryopreservation.(AU)

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