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ABSTRACT Objective: To investigate the relationship between intrauterine growth and renal function among Jamaican young adults. Methods: Data from 744 participants from the Jamaica 1986 Birth Cohort Study were analysed. We evaluated the relationship between infant characteristics (birthweight and gestational age), maternal characteristics at child's birth (age and socio-economic status), and renal function at ages 18-20 years (using estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), calculated using the Schwartz-Lyon equation and urine albumin excretion), or prevalent chronic kidney disease (CKD; defined as eGFR < 60 ml/minute/1.73 m2 or urinary albumin ≥ 30 mg/g creatinine). Associations were examined using multi-level mixed effects regression models. Results: The mean eGFR was 86.3 ml/minute/1.73 m2 among males and 102.4 ml/minute/1.73 m2 among females (p < 0.001). The prevalence of CKD was 8.3% (7.4% males, 9.1% females, p = 0.387). Birthweight was not significantly associated with eGFR in unadjusted models, but after adjustment for potential confounders/mediators (gender, blood pressure, body mass index, maternal occupation and education), individuals born with a low birthweight (< 2.5 kg) had a 5.1% lower eGFR compared to those with a normal birthweight (β = −0.052, p = 0.002). Furthermore, a one standard deviation increase in birthweight was associated with a 2.2% increase in eGFR (β = 0.022, p = 0.044). No statistically significant associations were observed between early life factors and urinary albumin or CKD in adjusted models. Conclusion: There was a high prevalence of CKD in this Afro-Caribbean young population. Lower birthweight was associated with reduced renal function in early adulthood, which may result in an increased risk of CKD later on in adulthood. Early life interventions may also be warranted in addressing the CKD epidemic.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Investigar la relación entre el crecimiento intrauterino y la función renal entre los adultos jóvenes jamaicanos. Métodos: Se analizaron los datos de 744 participantes en el Estudio de Cohorte de Nacimientos de Jamaica en 1986. Se evaluó la relación entre las características infantiles (peso al nacer y edad gestacional), las características maternas a la hora del nacimiento del niño (edad y estado socioeconómico), y la función renal a la edad de 18 a 20 años (utilizando la tasa de filtración glomerular estimada (TFGe), calculada usando la ecuación Schwartz-Lyon y la excreción de albúmina urinaria), o la enfermedad renal crónica prevalente (ERC; definida como TFGe < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 o albúmina urinaria ≥ 30 mg/g creatinina). Las asociaciones se examinaron mediante modelos multinivel de regresión de efectos mixtos. Resultados: El TFGe fue de 86.3 ml/min/1.73 m2 entre los varones y 102.4 ml/min/1.73 m2 entre las mujeres (p < 0.001). La prevalencia de ERC fue 8.3% (7.4% varones, 9.1% hembras, p = 0.387). El peso al nacer no se asoció significativamente con la TFGe en los modelos no ajustados, pero después de ajustar los factores de confusión/mediación potenciales (género, presión sanguínea, índice de masa corporal, ocupación y educación materna), los individuos con bajo peso al nacer (< 2.5 kg) tenían un TFGe 5.1% más bajo en comparación con aquellos con un peso normal al nacer (β = −0.052, p = 0.002). Además, un aumento de la desviación estándar en el peso al nacer estuvo asociado con un aumento de 2.2% en TFGe (β = 0.022, p = 0.044). No se observaron asociaciones estadísticamente significativas entre los factores de los primeros años de vida y la albúmina urinaria o ERC en los modelos ajustados. Conclusión: Hubo una alta prevalencia de ERC en esta población de jóvenes afrocaribeños.Un peso más bajo al nacer estuvo asociado con una reducción de la función renal en la edad adulta temprana, lo que puede llevar a un mayor riesgo de ERC más tarde en la edad adulta. Las intervenciones en los primeros años de vida también pueden explicarse al abordar la epidemia de ERC.

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OBJECTIVE: To examine the role of maternal feeding styles on the risk of overweight in a cohort of Caribbean infants. DESIGN AND METHODS: Data from mother-child pairs participating in an intervention study from 3 Caribbean islands were analysed. At recruitment, maternal and infant socio demographic and anthropometric data were collected and maternal depression assessed usingthe Center for Epidemiology Studies (CES) depression scale questionnaire. At 12 months, feeding styles was assessed in mothers by questionnaire. Factor analysis yielded five feeding styles: uninvolved, indulgent, forceful, restrictive and responsive. Infant length and weight were measured using standardized protocols at 18 months and BMI Z-scores were calculated from World Health Organization 2006 growth charts. Z-scores ≥ 1 were classified as at risk for overweight. Associations between maternal feeding styles and risk for infant overweight were assessed using multilevel logistic regression accounting for country and clinic. RESULTS: Data from 366 mother-child pairs (mean age 26.08ñ7.05 years, 55.5% high school graduates, 67.5% employed) were evaluated. No association was found between uninvolved, indulgent, forceful and responsive feeding styles with risk for infant overweight. Restrictive feeding was associated with increased risk for infant overweight (β=0.46; 95%CI=0.21,0.72) and the association remained after adjustment for infant birth weight, maternal age, education, socio-economic status and BMI (β=0.48;95%CI=0.21,0.74). This associationstrengthened after adjusting for maternal depression (β=0.55;95%CI=0.27,0.82). CONCLUSION: Restrictive feeding increased the risk of infant overweight. Overweight/obesity prevention interventions focusing on identifying suitable maternal feeding control as well as larger studies aimed at understanding the underlying mechanisms for this association are important approaches to tackling childhood overweight.

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OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role of parental characteristics and maternal perceptions of ways fathers might influence risk of overweight in Caribbean infants. DESIGN AND METHODS: Data from participants in a three island parenting intervention study were analyzed. Maternal and paternal characteristics were obtained by questionnaire at enrolment (infant age 6-10 weeks). At 18 months, 501 infants (82.9% of cohort) had weight and length measured using standardized methods and body mass index (BMI-Z scores) calculated. Participants with Z scores ≥1 were classified as at risk of overweight. Multi-level logistic regression analyses were utilized to assess the effect of parents’ characteristics on the risk of infant overweight. Additionally data from 4 focus group discussions among mothers with infants (6 - 24 months) in Jamaica were used to explore how any effects might be mediated. RESULTS: Overall 20.6% of the children were classified as at risk of overweight. The father was present in 52% of households. Fathers’ presence and higher paternal occupation level were associated with reduced risk of overweight after controlling for maternal age, education, occupation, receptive vocabulary and SES score. The presence of the father in the home (OR[95% CI] =0.78 (0.62 - 0.99)) decreased the odds of overweight in these infants. From focus group discussions mothers reported that the majority of fathers encouraged breastfeeding, healthier meal choices and discouraged use of unhealthy snacks. CONCLUSION: More information on paternal characteristics should be collected in future studies of childhood obesity. Interventions to address childhood overweight should include fathers as part of the strategy.

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OBJECTIVE: TV-viewing has been associated with childhood obesity and reducing screen time might help address this epidemic in Caribbean children. We explored the attitudes and beliefs of Jamaican mothers on the impact of television viewing on childhood obesity. DESIGN AND METHODS: Community health aides recruited mothers, 18 years and older with children aged 6-24 months, from four primary care clinics in Jamaica. Four focus group discussions (2 rural and 2 urban) were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide. Audio recordings and field notes from discussions were collected by field investigators. Transcripts were reviewed by study investigators and immersion/crystallization techniques were used to identify emerging themes. RESULTS: the mothers had a mean age of 28.26 ñ 6.25 years and 63% were unemployed. Parenting decisions were made based on instinct developed through experience, example and external input (friends, family, community and media) and information not consistent with this instinct was not readily accepted. Among the risk factors for obesity identified by mothers, TV-viewing was not perceived as important. The causal link between TV-viewing and obesity in young children was unclear to mothers. The perceived benefits from TV-viewing on their child’s development outweighed any potential harm and strong evidence would be required to convince them otherwise. CONCLUSION: Jamaican mothers may not easily accept obesity interventions that discourage TV-viewing. Incorporating evidence from credible sources, and interventions focused on healthy growth and development using examples of children developing optimally without the aid of TV, may overcome this perception.

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OBJECTIVE: To explore the beliefs shaping maternal decision-making around feeding practices in early childhood in a subset of Jamaican mothers from rural and urban communities. DESIGN AND METHODS: Focus group discussions guided by semi-qualitative questionnaires were conducted with thirty mothers of infants 6-24 months recruited from health clinics in 2 urban and 2 rural Jamaican communities. Data from discussions transcribed from audio recordings and field notes were categorized and interpreted using pre-set themes through an iterative process to identify emergent themes. Analysis was guided by the Theory of Reasoned Action embedded in the Socio-Ecological Perspective. RESULTS: Rural and urban mothers’ beliefs, and by extension their actions, were influenced by (a) their instincts, (b) their accepted knowledge (from personal and observed experience, credible professional input, and personal experimentation), (c) cultural norms (i.e. views of body weight/health relationship and visual perceptions of ‘healthy’); (d) input of experienced family members; and (e) their accepted concept of infants’ innate ability to express needs. Additionally, rural mothers’ beliefs were influenced by non-family social networks. For all mothers, the use of growth charts in portable health records and reliance on specific local television programs with health segments for health information was salient. The latter presents a unique tool for potentially building maternal confidence for healthy feeding practices. CONCLUSION: Early childhood food choices are predominantly dictated by parental belief-driven actions. Effective interventions targeting the impact of maternal feeding practices on childhood obesity should incorporate supportive, credible professional input, address how and what knowledge influences individual beliefs, increase community-wide knowledge, and target cultural norms.

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OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of diabetic foot complications among patients at a specialist diabetes clinic in Jamaica and identify factors associated with foot complications. METHODS: A stratified random sample of 188 patients were interviewed and examined between 2009 and 2010. Trained nurses obtained demographic and clinical data, measured anthropometrics and performed foot examinations including inspection for amputations, ulcers or infection and assessment of pain, vibration and pressure perception. RESULTS: Participants included 143 women and 45 men (mean age 56 years; mean diabetes duration 16 years). The prevalence of amputations was 8.5% (95% CI 4.5, 12.5%) and was higher among men (22.2%) compared to women (4.2%, p < 0.05). Prevalence of current ulcers and current foot infections was 4.3% and 3.7%, respectively. Overall, 12% of patients had at least one of these foot complications. Foot complications were more prevalent among men, patients with high blood pressure (BP > 130/80 mmHg) or peripheral neuropathy. In multivariable logistic regression models, factors associated with foot complications were: neuropathy (OR 9.3 [95% CI 2.8, 30.3]), high BP (OR 7.9 [1.3, 49.7]) and diabetes duration (OR 1.32 [1.02, 1.72]). CONCLUSION: Approximately one of every eight patients in this specialist clinic had a major foot complication. Associated factors were neuropathy, high blood pressure and longer duration of diabetes.

OBJETIVOS: Estimar la prevalencia de complicaciones de pie diabético entre pacientes de una clínica especializada en diabetes en Jamaica, e identificar los factores asociados con complicaciones de pie. SUJETOS Y MÉTODOS: Se realizaron entrevistas y exámenes a una muestra aleatoria estratificada de 188 pacientes entre 2009 y 2010. Enfermeras entrenadas obtuvieron datos demográficos y clínicos, realizaron mediciones antropométricas, así como exámenes de pie - incluyendo la inspección de las amputaciones, las úlceras o infección, y evaluación de la percepción del dolor, la vibración y la presión. RESULTADOS: Los participantes incluyeron 143 mujeres y 45 hombres (edad promedio: 56 años; duración promedio de la diabetes: 16 años). La prevalencia de las amputaciones fue 8.5% (IC de 95%: 4.5, 12.5%) y fue mayor entre los hombres (22.2%) en comparación con las mujeres (4.2%, p < 0.05). La prevalencia de las úlceras e infecciones de pie corrientes fue de 4.3% y 3.7%, respectivamente. En general, 12% de los pacientes tenían al menos una de estas complicaciones de pie. Las complicaciones de pie fueron más frecuentes entre los hombres, los pacientes con hipertensión arterial (BP > 130/80 mmHg), o con neuropatía periférica. De acuerdo con los modelos de regresión logística multivariable, los factores asociados con las complicaciones de pie fueron: la neuropatía (OR 9.3 [95% CI 2.8, 30.3]), BP alto (OR 7.9 [1.3, 49.7]) y la duración de la diabetes (OR 1.32 [1.02, 1.72]). CONCLUSIÓN: Aproximadamente uno de cada ocho pacientes en esta clínica especializada tuvo una complicación de pie importante. Los factores asociados fueron: neuropatía, presión alta y mayor duración de la diabetes.

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OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of high-risk sexual behaviours among Jamaican adults and evaluate associations with sociodemographic and religious factors. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study, using a nationally representative sample of Jamaicans, 15-74 years old. Participants completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire including questions on sexual activity, sociodemographic factors and religious practice. Having two or more sexual partners in the past year, non-use of condoms among persons with multiple partners and a history of previous sexually transmitted infection (STI) were the high-risk characteristics considered in the analysis. We obtained crude and category specific prevalence estimates for high-risk behaviour and estimated odds ratios for association with sociodemographic and religious factors. RESULTS: Data from 2833 participants who reported on sexually activity were analysed. Approximately 25% (95% CI 22, 27) of Jamaican adults had two or more sexual partners in the past year, while 15% (95% CI 13, 17) had a past history of an STI. Approximately 6% (95% CI 5, 7) of persons with multiple partners did not use condoms during sexual intercourse. Overall, 32% (95% CI 30, 35) had any one of the three high-risk characteristics (male, 48%; female, 17%, p < 0.001). Being married, active religious practice and weekly attendance at religious meetings were associated with lower odds of high-risk sexual behaviour, while being in a visiting relationship was associated with higher odds of high-risk behaviour. CONCLUSION: A third of Jamaicans reported sexual practices that increase their risk of HIV infection. High-risk sexual behaviour was more common among men. Being married and weekly attendance at religious services were associated with lower odds of high-risk behaviour.

OBJETIVO: Determinar la prevalencia de las conductas sexuales de alto riesgo entre los adultos jamaicanos y evaluar las asociaciones con factores sociodemográficos y religiosos. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio transversal, usando una muestra nacionalmente representativa de jamaicanos, de 15 a 74 años de edad. Los participantes completaron una encuesta administrada por el entrevistador, la cual incluía preguntas sobre actividad sexual, factores sociodemográficos, y práctica religiosa. El haber tenido dos o más parejas sexuales en el último año, la ausencia del uso de condones entre personas con parejas múltiples, y una historia previa de infecciones de transmisión sexual (ITS), fueron las características de alto riesgo consideradas en el análisis. Se obtuvieron estimaciones aproximadas y específicas por categorías en relación con las conductas de alto riesgo, así como estimaciones de los cocientes de probabilidades (odds ratios) con respecto a la asociación con los factores sociodemográficos y religiosos. RESULTADOS: Se analizaron los datos de 2833 participantes que informaron estar sexualmente activos. Aproximadamente 25% (95% CI 22, 27) de los adultos jamaicanos habían tenido dos o más parejas sexuales el último año, mientras que 15% (95% CI 13, 17) habían tenido una historia de ITS. Aproximadamente 6% (95% CI 5, 7) de las personas con parejas múltiples no usaron condones durante el acto sexual. En general, 32% (95% CI 30, 35) tenían alguna de las tres características de alto riesgo (varones, 48%; hembras, 17%, p < 0.001). El estar casado, tener una práctica religiosa, y asistir semanalmente a reuniones religiosas, estuvieron asociados con menores probabilidades de comportamiento sexual de alto riesgo, mientras que las relaciones de visitas ocasionales estuvieron asociadas con mayores probabilidades de conducta de alto riesgo. CONCLUSIÓN: Un tercio de la muestra representativa de jamaicanos reportó prácticas sexuales que aumentaban el riesgo de infección por VIH. La conducta sexual de alto riesgo fue más común entre los hombres. El estar casado, y asistir semanalmente a reuniones religiosas, estuvieron asociados con menores probabilidades de comportamiento sexual de alto riesgo.

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Over the last six decades, comprehensive national health surveys have become important data-gathering mechanisms to inform countries on their health status and provide information for health policy and programme planning. Developing countries have only recently begun such surveys and Jamaica has been at the forefront of this effort. Jamaica's Reproductive Health Surveys and programme response to their findings have resulted in an almost 50% reduction in fertility rates over three decades as well as a 40% reduction in unmet contraceptive needs and a 40% reduction in unplanned preg-nancies over the last two decades. The Jamaica Health and Lifestyle Surveys have served to reinforce the major burden that non-communicable diseases place on the society and the extent to which these are driven by unhealthy lifestyles. These surveys have shown that obesity, hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidaemia affect approximately 50%, 25%, 10% and 10% of the adult population, respectively. These surveys have documented low rates of treatment and control for these chronic non-communicable diseases despite two major policy initiatives, the National Programme for the Promotion of Healthy Lifestyles and the creation of the National Health Fund which subsidizes healthcare provision for chronic diseases. In order to maximize the uptake of the findings of future surveys into effective health policy, there will need to be effective collaborations between academia, policy-makers, regional and international health agencies, non-government organizations and civil society. Such collaborations should take into account the social, political and economic issues, thus ensuring a more comprehensive approach to health policy and result in improvement of the nation's health status and by extension national development.

Durante las últimas seis décadas, los estudios de salud integrales nacionales han devenido importantes mecanismos de recolección de datos para informar a los países sobre sus respectivos estados de salud, así como brindar información para el planeamiento de los programas y políticas de salud. Sólo recientemente los países en desarrollo han comenzado a realizar esos estudios, y Jamaica ha estado a la vanguardia de este esfuerzo. Los Estudios de Salud Reproductiva en Jamaica y los programas en respuesta a sus hallazgos han traído como resultado una reducción de casi un 50% en las tasas de fertilidad por espacio de más de tres décadas, así como una reducción de 40% de las necesidades anticonceptivas insatisfechas y una reducción de 40% de embarazos no planificados en las últimas dos décadas. Los Estudios sobre Estilo de Vida y Salud en Jamaica han servido para dar mayor peso a evaluar la gran carga que las enfermedades no comunicables imponen a la sociedad y determinar hasta que punto las mismas son consecuencia de estilos de vida no saludables. Estos estudios han mostrado que la obesidad, la hipertensión, la diabetes y la dislipidemia afectan a la población adulta en proporciones aproximadas de 50%, 25%, 10% y 10% respectivamente. Estos estudios han suministrado datos que ponen de manifiesto bajas tasas en el tratamiento y control de estas enfermedades no comunicables, a pesar de dos iniciativas principales: el Programa Nacional para la Promoción de Estilos de Vida Saludables y la creación del Fondo de Salud Nacional. En ambos casos, se trata de políticas encaminadas a subvencionar el cuidado de la salud en el caso de enfermedades crónicas. Para aumentar al máximo la respuesta a los resultados de estudios futuros y su introducción efectiva en las políticas de atención a la salud, será necesario establecer colaboraciones efectivas entre la academia, los encargados de trazar políticas, las agencias de salud regionales e internacionales, las organizaciones no gubernamentales, y la sociedad civil. Tales colaboraciones deben tener en cuenta los problemas sociales, políticos y económicos, asegurando de este modo un enfoque más integral de las políticas de salud, así como el mejoramiento del estado de salud de la nación, y por extensión del desarrollo nacional.

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OBJECTIVE: To provide the first detailed review of the indications and clinical utility of transoesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) in the Caribbean. DESIGN AND METHODS: Data for patients who had TEE performed at the Heart Institute of the Caribbean over a three-year period were abstracted and reviewed. Information gathered included demographic data, indications for the procedure, findings and clinical recommendations. The effect of age and sex on these variables was assessed using the Chisquare or Fishers Exact tests. Significance was set at a p < 0.05. RESULTS: Of the 116 procedures performed between 2005 and 2008, medical records were reviewed for 107 (50 male, 57 female) patients. The patients ranged in age from 15-86 years with a mean age of 45.4 ± 18.5 years. With the exception of four patients, all attempted TEE were completed. The most common indications for the procedure were valvular heart disease (41.1%), strokes (17.8%), shunts (10.3%) and infective endocarditis (11.2%). Less common indications included arrhythmias, cardiac masses, aortic dissection and shortness of breath. Transoesophageal echocardiogram altered the treatment course in about 30% of all patients including 66.6% of patients referred for suspected infective endocarditis. Furthermore, TEE resulted in recommendation for surgery in 43% of patients referred for evaluation of severity of valvular disease. Minor complications occurred in two persons. No severe complications or deaths occurred as a result of the procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Transoesophageal echocardiogram has been most commonly performed to evaluate valvular heart disease in Jamaica without any major complications resulting from the procedure. It provides additional information that supplements transthoracic echocardiography in a wide range of clinical conditions. Measures should be put in place to make TEE more widely available and accessible in Jamaica.

OBJETIVO: Ofrecer un primer examen detallado de las indicaciones y utilidad clínica del ecocar-diograma transesofágico (ETE) en el Caribe. DISEÑO Y MÉTODOS: Por un período de tres años, se examinaron y resumieron datos de pacientes a los cuales se les realizó un ETE en el Instituto de Cardiología del Caribe. La información recogida incluyó datos demográficos, indicaciones para el procedimiento, hallazgos y recomendaciones clínicas. Se evaluó el efecto de la edad y el género en estas variables usando las pruebas Chicuadrado y el test exacto de Fisher. La significatividad fue establecida en p < 0.05. RESULTADOS: De los 116 procedimientos realizados entre 2005 y 2008, se revisaron las historias clínicas de 107 pacientes (50 varones, 57 hembras). La edad de los pacientes fluctuó de 15 a 86 años para una edad promedio de 45.4 ± 18.5 años. Con la excepción de cuatro pacientes, todos los ETE planificados fueron realizados. Las indicaciones más comunes para el procedimiento fueron los casos de enfermedad valvular cardíaca (41.1%), accidente cerebrovascular (17.8%), shunts o desviaciones (10.3%) y endocarditis infecciosa (11.2%). Las indicaciones menos comunes incluyeron las arritmias, las masas cardíacas, la disección aórtica y la disnea. El ecocardiograma transesofágico alteró el curso del tratamiento en aproximadamente el 30% de todos los pacientes, incluyendo el 66.6% de los pacientes remitidos por sospecha de endocarditis infecciosa. Además, a partir del ETE se derivaron recomendaciones de cirugía para 43% de los pacientes remitidos para evaluación de la severidad de la enfermedad valvular. Se presentaron complicaciones menores en dos personas. No se produjeron complicaciones severas o muertes como resultado del procedimiento. CONCLUSIONES: El ecocardiograma transesofágico se ha realizado más frecuentemente con el propósito de evaluar la enfermedad valvular cardíaca en Jamaica, sin que se hayan presentado mayores complicaciones como resultado de su empleo. Por otra parte, este procedimiento ofrece información adicional que sirve de complemento a la ecocardiografía transtorácica en una amplia gama de condiciones clínicas. Deben tomarse medidas para que el ETE tenga una mayor disponibilidad y accesibilidad en Jamaica.

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We report the case of a 48-year old man with uncontrolled hypertension and persistent hypokalaemia from an aldosterone producing adrenal adenoma treated by laparoscopic adrenalectomy. Clinicians' identification of primary hyperaldosteronism is critical as the correct treatment results in improved blood pressure control and reduced risk of complications.

Reportamos el caso de un hombre de 48 años de edad con hipertensión descontrolada e hipocalemia persistente a partir de un adenoma suprarrenal productor de aldosterona, tratado mediante adena-lectomía laparoscópica. La identificación de hiperaldosteronismo primario por parte de los clínicos es fundamental, ya que el tratamiento correcto trae como resultado un mejor control de la presión sanguínea a la par que reduce el riesgo de complicaciones.

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