RESUMO
BACKGROUND: Nitric oxide is produced by different nitric oxide synthases isoforms. NO activates two signaling pathways, one dependent on soluble guanylate cyclase and protein kinase G, and other where NO post-translationally modifies proteins through S-nitrosylation, which is the modification induced by NO in free-thiol cysteines in proteins to form S-nitrosothiols. High levels of NO have been detected in blood of breast cancer patients and increased NOS activity has been detected in invasive breast tumors compared to benign or normal breast tissue, suggesting a positive correlation between NO biosynthesis, degree of malignancy and metastasis. During metastasis, the endothelium plays a key role allowing the adhesion of tumor cells, which is the first step in the extravasation process leading to metastasis. This step shares similarities with leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium, and it is plausible that it may also share some regulatory elements. The vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) expressed on the endothelial cell surface promotes interactions between the endothelium and tumor cells, as well as leukocytes. Data show that breast tumor cells adhere to areas in the vasculature where NO production is increased, however, the mechanisms involved are unknown. RESULTS: We report that the stimulation of endothelial cells with interleukin-8, and conditioned medium from breast tumor cells activates the S-nitrosylation pathway in the endothelium to induce leukocyte adhesion and tumor cell extravasation by a mechanism that involves an increased VCAM-1 cell surface expression in endothelial cells. We identified VCAM-1 as an S-nitrosylation target during this process. The inhibition of NO signaling and S-nitrosylation blocked the transmigration of tumor cells through endothelial monolayers. Using an in vivo model, the number of lung metastases was inhibited in the presence of the S-nitrosylation inhibitor N-acetylcysteine (NAC), which was correlated with lower levels of S-nitrosylated VCAM-1 in the metastases. CONCLUSIONS: S-Nitrosylation in the endothelium activates pathways that enhance VCAM-1 surface localization to promote binding of leukocytes and extravasation of tumor cells leading to metastasis. NAC is positioned as an important tool that might be tested as a co-therapy against breast cancer metastasis.
Assuntos
Neoplasias da Mama , Humanos , Feminino , Neoplasias da Mama/patologia , Adesão Celular , Células Endoteliais , Molécula 1 de Adesão de Célula Vascular/metabolismo , Óxido Nítrico/metabolismo , Melanoma Maligno CutâneoRESUMO
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are known to display important regenerative properties through the secretion of proangiogenic factors. Recent evidence pointed at the key role played by exosomes released from MSCs in this paracrine mechanism. Exosomes are key mediators of intercellular communication and contain a cargo that includes a modifiable content of microRNA (miRNA), mRNA, and proteins. Since the biogenesis of the MSCs-derived exosomes is regulated by the cross talk between MSCs and their niche, the content of the exosomes and consequently their biological function are dependent on the cell of origin and the physiologic or pathologic status of their microenvironment. Recent preclinical studies revealed that MSCs-derived exosomes have a critical implication in the angiogenic process since the use of exosomes-depleted conditioned medium impaired the MSCs angiogenesis response. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge related to the angiogenic potential of MSCs-exosomes and methods to enhance their biological activities for improved vascular regeneration. The current gain of insight in exosomes studies highlights the power of combining cell based therapies and their secreted products in therapeutic angiogenesis.