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In this study, we examined whether experience level and various dual motor and cognitive or single tasks influenced young soccer players' physical performance during small-sided games. Participants were 72 players from U-13 (n = 36) and U-17 (n = 36) groups who participated in 3-to-a-side small-sided games under four experimental conditions: control, a secondary motor task, an additional related secondary cognitive task, and an additional secondary non-specific task. We used GPS devices to measure physical performance in terms of distances covered and accelerations at different thresholds. We found no significant interaction effect between player experience and task condition (p = .540), meaning that dual tasks had comparable effects on players of different experience levels. There were significant main effects of both experience level (p < .001) and condition (p < .001) on most physically related variables. Older players outperformed younger ones, particularly in high-intensity actions. While secondary motor tasks decreased physical performance, secondary cognitive tasks, irrespective of specificity, did not impair players' performances. In conclusion, experience level did not influence the players' physical response to dual tasks, and a secondary motor task was more disruptive to physical performance than either of two types of secondary cognitive tasks. Cognitive tasks can be incorporated into soccer training without compromising physical performance.

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INTRODUCTION: Learning the complex skill of bronchoscopy involves the integration of cognitive domains and motor skills. The development of simulators has opened up new possibilities in bronchoscopy training. This study aimed at evaluating how effective the modeling example methodology is in training this skill and assessed its effect on cognitive load in learning. METHODS: Forty-seven medical students participating in a simulator-based bronchoscopy training program were randomly allocated to a control group, receiving a video lesson, and the modeling example group. They were evaluated by the simulator's metrics at different time points: pre-, posttest, and 15 days and 12 months after training. Cognitive load was assessed with the modified Paas scale. RESULTS: Simulation-based training was effective for both groups, based on simulator metrics (p < .05). The modeling example group outperformed the control group in all measures at posttest and after 15 days (p < .001). After 12 months, there was a decline in skill in both groups, but the modeling example group performed better (p < .001). Simulation-based training reduced cognitive load, more strongly so in the modeling example group (p < .001). CONCLUSION: The modeling example group showed substantial benefits over the control group, both in reducing the cognitive load in learning and in retaining knowledge and skill after 15 days and 12 months.

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In the present research the typical triangle on formative research was extended to a double triangle for an overall career programme (here expander/ compressor) and funnel proposal was explored in a single course (as a "fractal" method). Array processing and ElectroEncephaloGram (EEG) techniques have been incorporated into a Digital Signal Processing (DSP) course and research projects. The present research question was: is it possible to insert array sensing on formative research in an undergraduate course of DSP? From over eight years, two semesters with different homework loads (homogeneous triangle vs expander-compressor-supplier distributions) were analysed in detail within the DSP evaluations and students chose between experimental applied analysis and a formative research project. Results showed that cognitive load was influenced positively in the expander-compressor-supplier distribution, showing that an increase of the efficiency undertook more undergraduate research on array processing and the decrease of the number of formative applied projects. Over a longer term (48 months) students undertook more undergraduate research works on array processing and DSP techniques. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10639-023-11837-y.

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Knowing the difficulty of a given task is crucial for improving the learning outcomes. This paper studies the difficulty level classification of memorization tasks from pupillary response data. Developing a difficulty level classifier from pupil size features is challenging because of the inter-subject variability of pupil responses. Eye-tracking data used in this study was collected while students solved different memorization tasks divided as low-, medium-, and high-level. Statistical analysis shows that values of pupillometric features (as peak dilation, pupil diameter change, and suchlike) differ significantly for different difficulty levels. We used a wrapper method to select the pupillometric features that work the best for the most common classifiers; Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), and Random Forest (RF). Despite the statistical difference, experiments showed that a random forest classifier trained with five features obtained the best F1-score (82%). This result is essential because it describes a method to evaluate the cognitive load of a subject performing a task using only pupil size features.

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Researchers of cognitive load theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning have identified several strategies to optimize instructional materials. In this review article we focus on five of these strategies or solutions to problematic instructional designs in multimedia learning: (a) the multimedia principle (use visualizations and drawings to complement texts); (b) the split-attention effect or spatial contiguity principle (show texts contiguously or integrated with visualizations); (c) the redundancy effect, alike the coherence principle (remove nonessential learning information); (d) the signaling principle (cue or signal essential learning information); and (e) the transient information effect or segmenting principle (segment or control the pace of animations and videos). Usually, both cognitive theories have investigated solutions that instructors, teachers, and designers should pursue to optimize students' learning. Here, in a novel approach, we show that these strategies can also be used by learners who want to self-manage their cognitive load and learning process. We provide several examples of both instructor- and learner-managed solutions aligned with these strategies. When assessing which agent, either the instructor or the learner, was most effective, we observed mixed results in the literature. However, the expertise reversal effect may help predict the direction of these effects: novice students may learn better under instructor-managed conditions, whereas more expert students may learn more under learner-managed conditions.

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Resumo O trabalho na agricultura vem aumentando as exigências impostas ao trabalhador com o uso de tecnologias. Porém, para atividades agrícolas onde o incremento do uso de tecnologias é limitado, como na agricultura urbana orgânica, pouco se sabe sobre a carga cognitiva da atividade. Atualmente, não há registros de estudos sobre a carga cognitiva de trabalhadores da agricultura urbana orgânica, mesmo porque esse ainda é um movimento tímido. A importância deste estudo reside no fato de aumentar o conhecimento e as informações sobre esta população para fomentar o desenvolvimento da área. O objetivo deste artigo foi relatar as exigências cognitivas impostas a estes trabalhadores de forma a identificar a complexidade do seu trabalho. Para isso, realizou-se um estudo de caso com agricultores urbanos que utilizam práticas orgânicas, comercializam seus produtos e fazem dessa sua atividade econômica principal. Os achados comprovam que a carga cognitiva é elevada, contribuindo para um trabalho complexo para estes agricultores. Assim, a importância em ampliar os estudos para validar as informações encontradas e contribuir para a construção de políticas públicas efetivas é urgente.

Abstract Agricultural work has been increasing the demands placed on workers with the use of technologies. However, for agricultural activities, in which the increase in the use of technologies is limited, such as organic urban agriculture, little is known about the cognitive load of this activity. Currently, there are no records of studies on the cognitive load of workers in organic urban agriculture, since this is still a timid movement. The importance of this study lies in the fact that it increases the knowledge and information about this population to encourage the development of the area. The purpose of this article was to report the cognitive requirements imposed on these workers to identify the complexity of their work. A case study was conducted with urban farmers that use organic practices, market their products and make of this their main economic activity. The findings prove that the cognitive load is high, contributing to a complex job for these farmers. Thus, the importance of expanding the studies to validate the information found and contribute to the construction of effective public policies is urgent.

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In addition to the expansion of sustainability with crop rotation and use of residues from the property itself, the main characteristics of organic agriculture are the extinction of the use of chemicals and producing food free of these contaminants. This review aimed to find evidence that substantiates the improvement of the health and working conditions of farmers working with this model of agriculture. To this end, the ProKnow-C instrument was used, which recommends seven steps to select and evaluate the publications found. Exclusion criteria included studies related to the consumption of these products, school feeding, management, and cultivation techniques or studies conducted with non-organic farmers. After the exclusion, 11 documents remained for content analysis. Results of these studies indicated that when compared to conventional agriculture, there is an increase in cognitive load due to the variety of tasks; however, no mental suffering was identified. Despite the absence of appropriate technology and technical assistance, there is an increase in job satisfaction and an improvement of the health of the family as a whole, improving the quality of life. Additionally, the results of this review pointed to the gaps of research that can be carried out, such as longitudinal studies on organic agriculture, social interactions, environmental working conditions, and studies in the technological area. Finally, the results evinced that organic agriculture has a positive impact on the health of workers. Thus, the need for empirical research is important to develop innovations that improve work in organic agriculture.(AU)

A agricultura orgânica tem como principal característica a extinção do uso de produtos químicos gerando alimentos livres desses contaminantes, além de ampliar a sustentabilidade com rotação de culturas e uso de resíduos oriundos da própria propriedade. O objetivo desta revisão foi encontrar evidências que comprovem a melhoria das condições de saúde e trabalho de agricultores que trabalham com esse modelo de agricultura. Para tanto, foi utilizado o instrumento ProKnow-C que preconiza 7 etapas para selecionar e avaliar as publicações encontradas. Os critérios de exclusão foram estudos ligados ao consumo desses produtos, alimentação escolar, técnicas de manejo e cultivo ou estudos realizados com agricultores não orgânicos. Após, 11 documentos restaram para a análise do conteúdo. Como resultados, os estudos apontaram que, quando comparado à agricultura convencional, há aumento da carga cognitiva devido à variedade das tarefas, no entanto não identificou-se sofrimento mental. Apesar da ausência de tecnologia apropriada e de assistência técnica, há um aumento da satisfação com o trabalho, melhoria da saúde da família como um todo, melhorando a qualidade de vida. Ainda como resultados, esta revisão aponta as lacunas de pesquisas que podem ser realizadas, como estudos longitudinais sobre a agricultura orgânica, as interações sociais, as condições ambientais de trabalho, e estudos na área tecnológica. Enfim, concluem que a agricultura orgânica interfere positivamente na saúde dos trabalhadores. Portanto, a necessidade de pesquisas empíricas é iminente para desenvolver inovações que aprimorem o trabalho na agricultura orgânica.(AU)

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In cognitive load theory (CLT), learning is the development of cognitive schemas in a long-term memory with no known limits and can happen only if our limited working memory can process new information presented and the amount of information that does not contribute to learning is low. According to this theory, learning is optimal when instructional support is decreased going from worked examples via completion problem to autonomous problem solving and learners do not benefit from practicing retrieval with complex content. However, studies on productive failure and retrieval practice have provided clear evidence against these two guidelines. In this article, issues with CLT and research inspired by this theory, which remain largely ignored among cognitive load theorists but have likely contributed to these contradictory findings, are discussed. This article concludes that these issues should make us question the usefulness of CLT in health science education, medical education and other complex domains, and presents recommendations for both educational practice and future research on the matter.

Na teoria da carga cognitiva (CLT), a aprendizagem é o desenvolvimento de esquemas cognitivos em uma memória de longo prazo sem limites conhecidos e pode acontecer apenas se nossa limitada memória de trabalho puder processar novas informações apresentadas e a quantidade de informações que não contribui para a aprendizagem é baixo. De acordo com essa teoria, o aprendizado é ideal quando diminui o suporte instrucional, passando de exemplos trabalhados, via problemas de conclusão, para uma solução autônoma de problemas, e os alunos não se beneficiam praticando a recuperação com conteúdo complexo. No entanto, estudos sobre falhas produtivas e práticas de recuperação forneceram evidências claras contra essas duas diretrizes. Neste artigo, são discutidos problemas com a CLT e com pesquisas inspiradas nessa teoria, que permanecem amplamente ignorados entre os teóricos da carga cognitiva, mas provavelmente contribuíram para essas descobertas contraditórias. Este artigo conclui que essas questões devem nos fazer questionar a utilidade da CLT na educação em ciências da saúde, educação médica e outros domínios complexos e apresenta recomendações para a prática educacional e para pesquisas futuras sobre o assunto.

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ABSTRACT: In addition to the expansion of sustainability with crop rotation and use of residues from the property itself, the main characteristics of organic agriculture are the extinction of the use of chemicals and producing food free of these contaminants. This review aimed to find evidence that substantiates the improvement of the health and working conditions of farmers working with this model of agriculture. To this end, the ProKnow-C instrument was used, which recommends seven steps to select and evaluate the publications found. Exclusion criteria included studies related to the consumption of these products, school feeding, management, and cultivation techniques or studies conducted with non-organic farmers. After the exclusion, 11 documents remained for content analysis. Results of these studies indicated that when compared to conventional agriculture, there is an increase in cognitive load due to the variety of tasks; however, no mental suffering was identified. Despite the absence of appropriate technology and technical assistance, there is an increase in job satisfaction and an improvement of the health of the family as a whole, improving the quality of life. Additionally, the results of this review pointed to the gaps of research that can be carried out, such as longitudinal studies on organic agriculture, social interactions, environmental working conditions, and studies in the technological area. Finally, the results evinced that organic agriculture has a positive impact on the health of workers. Thus, the need for empirical research is important to develop innovations that improve work in organic agriculture.

RESUMO: A agricultura orgânica tem como principal característica a extinção do uso de produtos químicos gerando alimentos livres desses contaminantes, além de ampliar a sustentabilidade com rotação de culturas e uso de resíduos oriundos da própria propriedade. O objetivo desta revisão foi encontrar evidências que comprovem a melhoria das condições de saúde e trabalho de agricultores que trabalham com esse modelo de agricultura. Para tanto, foi utilizado o instrumento ProKnow-C que preconiza 7 etapas para selecionar e avaliar as publicações encontradas. Os critérios de exclusão foram estudos ligados ao consumo desses produtos, alimentação escolar, técnicas de manejo e cultivo ou estudos realizados com agricultores não orgânicos. Após, 11 documentos restaram para a análise do conteúdo. Como resultados, os estudos apontaram que, quando comparado à agricultura convencional, há aumento da carga cognitiva devido à variedade das tarefas, no entanto não identificou-se sofrimento mental. Apesar da ausência de tecnologia apropriada e de assistência técnica, há um aumento da satisfação com o trabalho, melhoria da saúde da família como um todo, melhorando a qualidade de vida. Ainda como resultados, esta revisão aponta as lacunas de pesquisas que podem ser realizadas, como estudos longitudinais sobre a agricultura orgânica, as interações sociais, as condições ambientais de trabalho, e estudos na área tecnológica. Enfim, concluem que a agricultura orgânica interfere positivamente na saúde dos trabalhadores. Portanto, a necessidade de pesquisas empíricas é iminente para desenvolver inovações que aprimorem o trabalho na agricultura orgânica.

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Resumen El presente estudio analiza los efectos generados por un andamiaje metacognitivo y el estilo cognitivo (dependiente/independiente de campo - DIC) en la carga cognitiva, la conciencia metacognitiva y el logro de aprendizaje cuando los estudiantes interactúan con un entorno de e-learning. Participaron 67 estudiantes de pregrado de la ciudad de Bogotá (Colombia), divididos en dos grupos. Uno interactuó con un entorno de aprendizaje con un andamiaje metacognitivo y el otro, sin él. Se utilizó la prueba EFT para establecer el estilo cognitivo de los aprendices y con la prueba MAI se determinó la conciencia metacognitiva. Se realizó un MANCOVA para analizar los datos. Los resultados sugieren diferencias entre la carga cognitiva intrínseca y extrínseca de los estudiantes dependientes de campo debido a la interacción entre el andamiaje metacognitivo y su estilo cognitivo. Los estudiantes que interactuaron con el andamiaje metacognitivo mostraron un mayor logro de aprendizaje y una mejor capacidad de monitoreo de su proceso de aprendizaje.

Abstract The present study analyzes the effects generated by a metacognitive scaffolding and the cognitive style (Field Dependent/Independent-FDI) in the cognitive load, the metacognitive awareness and the achievement of learning when the students interact with an environment of e-Learning. 67 undergraduate students from the city of Bogotá (Colombia) participated, divided into two groups. One interacted with a learning environment with a metacognitive scaffolding and the other, without it. The EFT test was used to determine the cognitive style of the ap prentices and the MAI test established the metacognitive awareness. Data were analyzed with a MANCOVA analysis. Results suggest differences between the intrinsic and extrinsic cognitive load in field dependent students due to the interaction between the metacognitive scaffolding and their cognitive style. Students who interacted with the metacognitive scaffolding showed a greater learning achievement and a better ability to monitoring their learning process.