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INTRODUCTION: Galectins (Gal) were linked with inflammatory responses in the central nervous system, may play an important role in the pathogenesis of BD.In this study,we aimed to investigate whether serum Gal-1 and Gal-3 levels are related to BD. METHODS: 36 patients diagnosed with BD were included.C-Reactive Protein(CRP),Gal-1,Gal-3 blood levels were evaluated on the first day of hospitalization and the third week of treatment and compared with 41 healthy controls.The severity of the illness was evaluated with the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS). RESULTS: CRP levels of BD patients at hospitalization were significantly higher than the third week of treatment and healthy controls.Gal-1 levels on the first day of hospitalization and the third week of treatment were found higher than the healthy controls.There was no significant difference in Gal-3 levels of the patients on the day of hospitalization compared to healthy controls;at the end of the 3rd week of treatment,Gal-3 was statistically significantly higher than the first day of hospitalization. CONCLUSION: Our study is valuable in that it is the first study to show the change in Gal levels after treatment and to evaluate the role of Gal in BD.Gal-1 may play roles in the pathophysiology of BD.Gal-3 may be a biomarker candidate for the evaluation of the treatment response.

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Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) constitute a group of diseases that generally develop in tropical or subtropical climatic conditions and are related to poverty. Within the spectrum of NTDs, diseases caused by protozoa such as malaria, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis exhibit elevated mortality rates, thereby constituting a substantial public health concern. Beyond their protozoan etiology, these NTDs share other similarities, such as the challenge of control and the lack of affordable, safe, and effective drugs. In view of the above, the need to explore novel diagnostic predictors and therapeutic targets for the treatment of these parasitic diseases is evident. In this context, galectins are attractive because they are a set of lectins bound to ß-galactosides that play key roles in a variety of cellular processes, including host-parasite interaction such as adhesion and entry of parasites into the host cells, and participate in antiparasitic immunity in either a stimulatory or inhibitory manner, especially the galectins-1, -2, -3, and -9. These functions bestow upon galectins significant therapeutic prospects in the context of managing and diagnosing NTDs. Thus, the present review aims to elucidate the potential role of galectins in the diagnosis and treatment of malaria, leishmaniasis, and Chagas disease.

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Rare cancers represent only 5% of newly diagnosed malignancies. However, in some cases, they account for up to 50% of the deaths attributed to cancer in their corresponding organ. Part of the reason is that treatment options are generally quite limited, non-specific, and very often, only palliative. Needless to say, research for tailored treatments is warranted. Molecules that exert immunomodulation of the tumor microenvironment are attractive drug targets. One such group is galectins. Thus, in this review we summarize the current knowledge about galectin-mediated immunomodulation in rare cancers, highlighting the research opportunities in each case.

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Galectins, a family of evolutionarily conserved glycan-binding proteins, play key roles in diverse biological processes including tissue repair, adipogenesis, immune cell homeostasis, angiogenesis, and pathogen recognition. Dysregulation of galectins and their ligands has been observed in a wide range of pathologic conditions including cancer, autoimmune inflammation, infection, fibrosis, and metabolic disorders. Through protein-glycan or protein-protein interactions, these endogenous lectins can shape the initiation, perpetuation, and resolution of these processes, suggesting their potential roles in disease monitoring and treatment. However, despite considerable progress, a full understanding of the biology and therapeutic potential of galectins has not been reached due to their diversity, multiplicity of cell targets, and receptor promiscuity. In this article, we discuss the multiple galectin-binding partners present in different cell types, focusing on their contributions to selected physiologic and pathologic settings. Understanding the molecular bases of galectin-ligand interactions, particularly their glycan-dependency, the biochemical nature of selected receptors, and underlying signaling events, might contribute to designing rational therapeutic strategies to control a broad range of pathologic conditions.

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In this article, we discuss the main aspects regarding the recognition of cell surface glycoconjugates and the immunomodulation of responses against the progression of certain pathologies, such as cancer and infectious diseases. In the first part, we talk about different aspects of glycoconjugates and delve deeper into the importance of N-glycans in cancer immunotherapy. Then, we describe two important lectin families that have been very well studied in the last 20 years. Examples include the sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin (Ig)-like lectins (siglecs), and galectins. Finally, we discuss a topic that needs to be better addressed in the field of glycoimmunology: the impact of oncofetal antigens on the cells of the immune system. New findings in this area are of great importance for advancement, especially in the field of oncology, since it is already known that cellular interactions mediated by carbohydrate-carbohydrate and/or carbohydrate proteins are able to modulate the progression of different types of cancer in events that compromise the functionality of the immune responses.

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Neurodegeneration is a pathological condition that is associated with the loss of neuronal function and structure. In neurodegenerative diseases, mounting evidence indicates that neuroinflammation is a common factor that contributes to neuronal damage and neurodegeneration. Neuroinflammation is characterized by the activation of microglia, the neuroimmune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), which have been implicated as active contributors to neuronal damage. Glycan structure modification is defining the outcome of neuroinflammation and neuronal regeneration; moreover, the expression of galectins, a group of lectins that specifically recognize ß-galactosides, has been proposed as a key factor in neuronal regeneration and modulation of the inflammatory response. Of the different galectins identified, galectin-1 stimulates the secretion of neurotrophic factors in astrocytes and promotes neuronal regeneration, whereas galectin-3 induces the proliferation of microglial cells and modulates cell apoptosis. Galectin-8 emerged as a neuroprotective factor, which, in addition to its immunosuppressive function, could generate a neuroprotective environment in the brain. This review describes the role of galectins in the activation and modulation of astrocytes and microglia and their anti- and proinflammatory functions within the context of neuroinflammation. Furthermore, it discusses the potential use of galectins as a therapeutic target for the inflammatory response and remodeling in damaged tissues in the central nervous system.

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Galectins are multifunctional glycan-binding proteins present in various tissues that participate in multiple physiological and pathological processes and are considered as not only biomarkers of human diseases but also molecular targets for treating cancer and inflammatory illnesses in many organs. In the glycobiology field, it is crucial to determine the pattern of galectin expression and location in cells and tissues. Confocal microscopy is a powerful imaging technology that represents a unique approach to investigate the expression and location of biomolecules in various tissues and cells. The confocal microscope acquires images of the specimen through the reflected or fluorescent light from the objective's focal plane, using laser light focused on a small spot inside the tissue or cell. This technique provides high-resolution and high-contrast images without artifacts generated by conventional microscopy and enables reconstruction of virtual tridimensional images by acquiring multiple sections from several focal planes, which makes it possible to obtain the precise spatial location of any cellular structure or molecule. Furthermore, confocal microscopy is a non-invasive tissue imaging strategy used in clinical practices. We describe herein the immunofluorescence confocal method for examining galectins in frozen tissue sections and mammalian cell culture.

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Development of an aberrant vascular network is a hallmark of the multistep pathological process of tumor growth and metastasis. In response to hypoxia, several pro-angiogenic factors are synthesized to support vascularization programs required for cancer progression. Emerging data indicate the involvement of glycans and glycan-binding proteins as critical regulators of vascular circuits in health and disease. Galectins may be regulated by hypoxic conditions and control angiogenesis in different physiopathological settings. These ß-galactoside-binding proteins may promote sprouting angiogenesis by interacting with different glycosylated receptors and triggering distinct signaling pathways. Understanding the role of galectins in tumor neovascularization will contribute to the design of novel anti-angiogenic therapies aimed at complementing current anti-cancer modalities and overcoming resistance to these treatments. Here we describe selected strategies and methods used to study the role of hypoxia-regulated galectins in the regulation of blood vessel formation.

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Galectins are a family of proteins with affinity for ß-galactosides and their expression correlates with overall survival (OS) in several cancers. However, in breast cancer their prognostic potential is unclear. In this study we performed a meta-analysis to clarify the prognostic value of galectin expression in breast cancer and to identify sources of heterogeneity. For this purpose, we performed a search of related publications in PubMed, Central-Conchrane, Web of Science database, OVID-EMBASE, Scope and EBSCOhost until November 2021.Thirteen articles were included with a total of 2700 patients. High galectin expression was found not to correlate with OS in breast cancer (HR = 1.11, 95% CI 0.93-1.31). In the case of galectin-3, correlation with OS was observed when performing subgroup analysis by cellular localization (HR = 0.59, 95% CI 0.36-0.94 for cytoplasmic and HR = 1.82, 95% CI 1.00-3.29 for cytoplasmic plus nuclear). Galectin-7 correlates with DFS/PFS/DSS (HR = 2.43; 95% CI 1.36-4.31). Finally, galectin-3 correlates with some clinicopathological features such as lymph node metastasis, estrogen receptor expression and age. In conclusion, galectin-3 correlates with OS in breast cancer when cellular localization is considered while galectin-7 correlates with DFS/PFS/DSS. The cellular localization of galectins should be as fundamental aspect to be determined in future studies.

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