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BACKGROUND: Epidemiological data from Mexico have documented an increase in heroin use in the last decade. However, there is no comprehensive care strategy for heroin users, especially those who have been accused of a crime. The objective of this study was to describe the heroin and methadone use of intravenous heroin users of both sexes who have been in jail, to offer evidence for the formulation of health policy. METHODS: This study used an ethnographic approach, with open-ended interviews carried out from 2014 to the present. Heroin users of both sexes attending a private methadone clinic in Mexico City were invited to participate. The sample was non-probabilistic. All interviews were audiotaped and transcribed, and narratives were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Participants in this study were 33 users of heroin, two of them women, who had been in prison. They ranged in age from 33 to 62 years, had used heroin for a period of 13-30 years, and were from three states: Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Mexico City. Three principal categories of analysis were structured: 1. Pilgrimage for help (dynamics of the drama of suffering, pain, and time through health care spaces); 2) methadone use as self-care; and 3) accessibility to methadone treatment. The impossibility of access to methadone treatment is a condition which motivates users in their journey. The dynamics of methadone use are interpreted as a form of self-care and care to avoid substance use. Reducing the psychological, physical, and harmful effects of the substance allows them to perform daily activities. The inability to access treatment leads to a significant effect on users who experience structural violence. CONCLUSION: Compassionate methadone treatment and holistic attention should be considered as a way to meet patients' needs and mitigate their suffering, based on public health policy that allows for human rights-based care.

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This study aims to analyze the relationship between social isolation and loneliness with smoking in older adults. This is a cross-sectional, population-based study performed with 986 individuals aged 60 years or older. Data were collected from the Health Survey of the Municipality of Campinas (ISACamp 2014/2015), state of São Paulo, Brazil. We estimated the prevalence of smoking and smoking cessation according to independent variables and tested the associations using the chi-square test, considering a 5% significance level. Adjusted prevalence ratios were calculated using simple and multiple Poisson regression. Smoking and smoking cessation were not associated with most variables that indicate objective social isolation. "Often or always" loneliness was related to a higher prevalence of smoking (PR = 2.25; 95%CI: 1.38-3.66) whereas loneliness accompanied of self-reported emotional problems or common mental disorders was strongly associated with smoking and with lower smoking cessation (PR = 6.24; 95%CI: 1.37-28.47 and PR = 0.46; 95%CI: 0.28-0.77, respectively). These findings indicate that loneliness is a psychosocial aspect related to tobacco use which hinders smoking cessation in older adults, emphasizing the importance of emotional problems in this association.

O estudo busca analisar a relação entre isolamento social, solidão e tabagismo entre idosos. Trata-se de um estudo transversal de base populacional que incluiu 986 indivíduos com 60 anos ou mais. Os dados foram obtidos do Inquérito de Saúde de Município de Campinas (ISACamp 2014/2015), São Paulo, Brasil. Foram estimadas as taxas de prevalência do tabagismo e da cessação do tabagismo de acordo com as variáveis independentes e testadas as associações através do teste de qui-quadrado, considerando nível de significância de 5%. Foram calculadas as razões de prevalência ajustadas com o uso de regressão de Poisson simples e múltipla. O tabagismo e a cessação do tabagismo não mostraram associação com a maioria das variáveis que indicam isolamento social objetivo, enquanto o relato da solidão muitas vezes ou sempre esteve relacionado a uma maior prevalência de tabagismo (RP = 2,25; IC95%: 1,38-3,66). A solidão, acompanhada pelo autorrelato de problemas emocionais ou a presença de transtornos mentais comuns, esteve fortemente associada com o tabagismo e com menor prevalência de cessação do tabagismo (RP = 6,24; IC95%: 1,37-28,47 e RP = 0,46; IC95%: 0,28-0,77, respectivamente). Os achados sustentam o papel da solidão enquanto aspecto psicossocial relacionado ao uso de tabaco e ao impedimento da cessação do tabagismo em idosos e destacam a importância de problemas emocionais nessa associação.

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la relación entre el aislamiento social y la soledad con el hábito de fumar en adultos mayores. Se trata de un estudio transversal basado en población, realizado con 986 individuos con 60 años o mayores. Los datos se recogieron de la Encuesta de Salud de la Ciudad de Campinas (ISACamp 2014/2015), estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Estimamos la prevalencia del hábito de fumar y dejar de fumar según variables independientes y probamos las asociaciones usando el test chi-cuadrado, considerando un nivel de significancia de un 5%. Se calcularon las ratios de prevalencia usando una regresión simple y múltiple de Poisson. Fumar y dejar de fumar no estuvieron asociadas con la mayor parte de variables que indican aislamiento social objetivo, mientras que informar soledad a menudo o siempre estuvo relacionado con una más alta prevalencia de tabaquismo (RP = 2,25; IC95%: 1,38-3,66). Soledad acompañada de problemas emocionales autoinformados o la presencia de desórdenes mentales comunes estuvo fuertemente asociado con el tabaquismo y con una menor prevalencia de dejar de fumar (RP = 6,24; IC95%: 1,37-28,47 y RP = 0,46; IC95%: 0,28-0,77, respectivamente). Estos resultados apoyan el papel de la soledad como un aspecto psicosocial relacionado con el consumo de tabaco y el impedimento de dejar de fumar en adultos mayores, además de subrayar la importancia de problemas emocionales en esta asociación.

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BACKGROUND: Heroin use is a public health concern in the United States. Despite the unique etiology and patterns of heroin use among U.S. Latinos, long-term heroin trajectories and health consequences among Latinos are not well understood. This study aims to document the distinct heroin use trajectories for a group of street-recruited (non-treatment), young adult Mexican American men living in a disadvantaged community who were affiliated with gangs during their youth. METHODS: One-time interviews conducted between 2009-2012 in San Antonio, TX collected retrospective data from a sample of 212 Mexican American young adult men who reported using heroin at least once. Group-based trajectory modeling was applied to determine discrete developmental trajectories of heroin use. ANOVA, Chi square tests, and multinomial logistic regression examined current (past year) social and health indicators among each trajectory group. RESULTS: Five discrete heroin trajectories groups were identified: low use (n = 65); late accelerating (n = 31); early decelerating (n = 26); late decelerating (n = 38); and stably high (n = 52). Varying social and health consequences were found among the trajectory groups. CONCLUSION: This study describes the unique heroin use trajectories and social and health outcomes among a high-risk subgroup of Mexican American men. The findings suggest that early intervention and intervention available in easy to access non-treatment spaces may be especially useful for groups of people who use relatively less heroin.

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OBJECTIVE: Colombia is facing a rising epidemic of intravenous heroin use. Knowledge of the methadone-assisted treatment programs in the country is crucial in order to propose improvement strategies. METHODS: 13 programmes from priority regions were surveyed. The demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients attending the programs, a description of the services offered, their methadone treatment protocols, the various barriers to treatment and the causes of treatment abandonment were reviewed. RESULTS: 12/13 questionnaires were analysed with a total of 538 active patients. Most of the patients attending these programs were men (85.5%) between 18 and 34 years-old (70%). Forty percent (40%) were intravenous drug users and 25% admitted sharing needles. The comorbidities associated with heroin use were mental illness (48%), hepatitis C (8.7%) and HIV (2%). Psychiatric comorbidity was more likely in patients attending the private sector (69.8% vs 29.7%; p<0.03). The initial average dose of methadone administered was 25.3±8.9mg/day, with a maintenance dose ranging from 41 to 80mg/day. Lack of alignment with primary care was perceived to be the most serious barrier to access, ahead of problems with insurance and prejudice towards treatment with methadone (p<0.05). Health Administration and insurance problems (p<0.003), together with the lack of availability of methadone (p<0.018) and relapse (p<0.014) were the most important reasons for abandonment of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment protocols of these programmes offer different levels of development and implementation. Some of the barriers to access and reasons for abandonment of treatment with methadone can be mitigated with better health administration.

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INTRODUCTION: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder persisting in adulthood in 40-60% of cases. Clinical and neuroimaging studies suggest that patients affected by both drug addiction and ADHD show higher rates of craving for drug than patients without ADHD. We designed a pilot open-label study to investigate the effects of ADHD on craving for heroin in methadone maintenance therapy patients. METHOD: Patients were recruited from outpatient facilities in an addiction treatment unit in the municipality of Alba, Italy. They were assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5), the SCID-5 for Personality Disorders (SCID-5-PD), the Diagnostic Interview for Adult ADHD, second edition (DIVA 2.0), and the Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). Categorical variables were examined using the chi-square test, and continuous variables, the t-test and Mann-Whitney's U test for normally and non-normally distributed data, respectively. Data distribution was evaluated using Shapiro-Wilk's test. Significance was set at p=0.05. Bonferroni correction was applied (0.0063) to avoid type I error. RESULTS: A total of 104 patients were included in the study: 14 affected by ADHD (13.5%) and 90 were not affected (86.5%). Patients with ADHD showed higher intensity of craving for heroin than patients without ADHD in the absence of withdrawal symptoms. CONCLUSION: Drug addiction and ADHD share various neurobiological mechanisms that mutually influence the evolution of both disorders. In particular, dopamine dysfunction within various brain circuits may influence impulsivity levels, motivation, inhibitory control, executive functions, and behavior and, consequently, the intensity of craving.

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Abstract Introduction Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder persisting in adulthood in 40-60% of cases. Clinical and neuroimaging studies suggest that patients affected by both drug addiction and ADHD show higher rates of craving for drug than patients without ADHD. We designed a pilot open-label study to investigate the effects of ADHD on craving for heroin in methadone maintenance therapy patients. Method Patients were recruited from outpatient facilities in an addiction treatment unit in the municipality of Alba, Italy. They were assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5), the SCID-5 for Personality Disorders (SCID-5-PD), the Diagnostic Interview for Adult ADHD, second edition (DIVA 2.0), and the Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). Categorical variables were examined using the chi-square test, and continuous variables, the t-test and Mann-Whitney's U test for normally and non-normally distributed data, respectively. Data distribution was evaluated using Shapiro-Wilk's test. Significance was set at p=0.05. Bonferroni correction was applied (0.0063) to avoid type I error. Results A total of 104 patients were included in the study: 14 affected by ADHD (13.5%) and 90 were not affected (86.5%). Patients with ADHD showed higher intensity of craving for heroin than patients without ADHD in the absence of withdrawal symptoms. Conclusion Drug addiction and ADHD share various neurobiological mechanisms that mutually influence the evolution of both disorders. In particular, dopamine dysfunction within various brain circuits may influence impulsivity levels, motivation, inhibitory control, executive functions, and behavior and, consequently, the intensity of craving.

Resumo Introdução O transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) é um transtorno do neurodesenvolvimento que persiste na idade adulta em 40-60% dos casos. Estudos clínicos e de neuroimagem sugerem que pacientes afetados tanto por adição quanto por TDAH apresentam maiores índices de fissura (craving) por droga do que pacientes sem TDAH. Este estudo piloto aberto investigou os efeitos do TDAH sobre fissura por heroína em pacientes em terapia de manutenção com metadona. Método Os pacientes foram recrutados em serviços ambulatoriais em uma unidade de tratamento de adição na cidade de Alba, Itália. Eles foram avaliados usando os seguintes instrumentos: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5), SCID-5 for Personality Disorders (SCID-5-PD), Diagnostic Interview for Adult TDAH, second edition (DIVA 2.0) e Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). Variáveis categóricas foram examinadas utilizando o teste do qui-quadrado, e variáveis contínuas, o teste t e o teste U de Mann-Whitney para dados com distribuição normal e não normal, respectivamente. A distribuição dos dados foi avaliada usando o teste de Shapiro-Wilk. O nível de significância foi estabelecido em p=0,05. A correção de Bonferroni foi aplicada (0,0063) para evitar erro tipo I. Resultados Um total de 104 pacientes foram incluídos no estudo: 14 com TDAH (13,5%) e 90 sem (86,5%). Pacientes com TDAH mostraram maior intensidade de fissura por heroína do que pacientes sem TDAH na ausência de sintomas de abstinência. Conclusão Adição e TDAH compartilham mecanismos neurobiológicos que influenciam mutuamente a evolução dos dois transtornos. Em particular, a disfunção da dopamina em vários circuitos cerebrais pode influenciar os níveis de impulsividade, motivação, controle inibitório, funções executivas e comportamento, e, portanto, a intensidade da fissura.

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Understanding the effect of cultural values on depression and how social networks influence these relationships may be important in the treatment of substance-using, Mexican American populations. Latino cultural values, familismo, personalismo, fatalismo, and machismo, may be associated with depression among Latinos. The current study identified the association of traditional Latino values on depressive symptomatology among a sample of Mexican American heroin injectors. A cross-sectional research design and field-intensive outreach methodology were utilized to recruit 227 Mexican American men. Participants were categorized into depressed and nondepressed groups. Relations among cultural values and depression were examined using logistic regression. Findings indicate that drug-using men with higher familismo and fatalismo scores are protected against depressive symptomatology. Relations between familismo and depression seem to be moderated by having a drug use network. In addition, findings reveal that age is inversely related to depressive symptomatology. Young Mexican American heroin users who do not ascribe to traditional Latino values may be highly associated with depression and therefore more vulnerable to riskier drug use behaviors. Moreover, drug-using social networks may affect the protective nature of certain cultural values. Further research is needed to identify whether culturally tailored treatments can cultivate these values while simultaneously undermining the effect of substance-using social networks in order to reduce depression symptoms among this group of high-risk substance users.

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People who inject drugs (PWID) in Tijuana, Mexico, use heroin and/or methamphetamine. While polydrug use is associated with HIV risk behavior, less is known about the stability of polydrug use patterns over time and how polydrug use is related to perceived treatment need. Within a cohort of PWID in Tijuana (N = 735) we sought to (1) characterize subgroups of polydrug and polyroute use from baseline to six months; (2) determine the probabilities of transitioning between subgroups; and (3) examine whether self-reported need for help for drug use modified these transition probabilities. Latent transition analysis (LTA) identified four latent statuses: heroin-only injection (38% at both baseline and follow-up); co-injection of heroin with methamphetamine (3% baseline, 15% follow-up); injection of heroin and methamphetamine (37% baseline, 32% follow-up); and polydrug and polyroute users who injected heroin and both smoked and injected methamphetamine (22% baseline, 14% follow-up). Heroin-only injectors had the highest probability of remaining in the same latent status at follow-up. The majority reported great or urgent need for treatment (51%) and these PWID had greater odds of transitioning to a higher-risk status at follow-up, emphasizing the need for evidence-based drug treatment options for PWID.

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