RESUMO
Classic galactosemia is an inborn error of metabolism caused by mutations in the GALT gene resulting in the diminished activity of the galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase enzyme. This reduced GALT activity leads to the buildup of the toxic intermediate galactose-1-phosphate and a decrease in ATP levels upon exposure to galactose. In this work, we focused our attention on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in the context of this metabolic disorder. We observed that galactose-1-phosphate accumulation reduced respiratory rates in vivo and changed mitochondrial function and morphology in yeast models of galactosemia. These alterations are harmful to yeast cells since the mitochondrial retrograde response is activated as part of the cellular adaptation to galactose toxicity. In addition, we found that galactose-1-phosphate directly impairs cytochrome c oxidase activity of mitochondrial preparations derived from yeast, rat liver, and human cell lines. These results highlight the evolutionary conservation of this biochemical effect. Finally, we discovered that two compounds - oleic acid and dihydrolipoic acid - that can improve the growth of cell models of mitochondrial diseases, were also able to improve galactose tolerance in this model of galactosemia. These results reveal a new molecular mechanism relevant to the pathophysiology of classic galactosemia - galactose-1-phosphate-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction - and suggest that therapies designed to treat mitochondrial diseases may be repurposed to treat galactosemia.
Assuntos
Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons , Galactosemias , Galactosefosfatos , Mitocôndrias , Galactosemias/metabolismo , Galactosemias/patologia , Galactosemias/genética , Galactosefosfatos/metabolismo , Humanos , Animais , Ratos , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/patologia , Mitocôndrias/efeitos dos fármacos , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/metabolismo , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Fosforilação Oxidativa/efeitos dos fármacos , UTP-Hexose-1-Fosfato Uridililtransferase/metabolismo , UTP-Hexose-1-Fosfato Uridililtransferase/genética , Galactose/metabolismoRESUMO
In the presence of galactose, lithium ions activate the unfolded protein response (UPR) by inhibiting phosphoglucomutase activity and causing the accumulation of galactose-related metabolites, including galactose-1-phosphate. These metabolites also accumulate in humans who have the disease classic galactosemia. Here, we demonstrate that Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast strains harboring a deletion of UBX4, a gene encoding a partner of Cdc48p in the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, exhibit delayed UPR activation after lithium and galactose exposure because the deletion decreases galactose-1-phosphate levels. The delay in UPR activation did not occur in yeast strains in which key ERAD or proteasomal pathway genes had been disrupted, indicating that the ubx4Δ phenotype is ERAD-independent. We also observed that the ubx4Δ strain displays decreased oxygen consumption. The inhibition of mitochondrial respiration was sufficient to diminish galactose-1-phosphate levels and, consequently, affects UPR activation. Finally, we show that the deletion of the AMP-activated protein kinase ortholog-encoding gene SNF1 can restore the oxygen consumption rate in ubx4Δ strain, thereby reestablishing galactose metabolism, UPR activation, and cellular adaption to lithium-galactose challenge. Our results indicate a role for Ubx4p in yeast mitochondrial function and highlight that mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum functions are intertwined through galactose metabolism. These findings also shed new light on the mechanisms of lithium action and on the pathophysiology of galactosemia.
Assuntos
Galactose/farmacologia , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intracelular/metabolismo , Lítio/farmacologia , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Resposta a Proteínas não Dobradas/efeitos dos fármacos , Fatores de Transcrição de Zíper de Leucina Básica/genética , Fatores de Transcrição de Zíper de Leucina Básica/metabolismo , Retículo Endoplasmático/metabolismo , Galactose/metabolismo , Galactosefosfatos/metabolismo , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intracelular/deficiência , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intracelular/genética , Consumo de Oxigênio , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinases/deficiência , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinases/genética , Splicing de RNA , Proteínas Repressoras/genética , Proteínas Repressoras/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genéticaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Giardia lamblia is a pathogen of humans and other vertebrates. The synthesis of glycogen and of structural oligo and polysaccharides critically determine the parasite's capacity for survival and pathogenicity. These characteristics establish that UDP-glucose is a relevant metabolite, as it is a main substrate to initiate varied carbohydrate metabolic routes. RESULTS: Herein, we report the molecular cloning of the gene encoding UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase from genomic DNA of G. lamblia, followed by its heterologous expression in Escherichia coli. The purified recombinant enzyme was characterized to have a monomeric structure. Glucose-1-phosphate and UTP were preferred substrates, but the enzyme also used galactose-1-phosphate and TTP. The catalytic efficiency to synthesize UDP-galactose was significant. Oxidation by physiological compounds (hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide) inactivated the enzyme and the process was reverted after reduction by cysteine and thioredoxin. UDP-N-acetyl-glucosamine pyrophosphorylase, the other UTP-related enzyme in the parasite, neither used galactose-1-phosphate nor was affected by redox modification. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that in G. lamblia the UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is regulated by oxido-reduction mechanism. The enzyme exhibits the ability to synthesize UDP-glucose and UDP-galactose and it plays a key role providing substrates to glycosyl transferases that produce oligo and polysaccharides. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: The characterization of the G. lamblia UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase reinforces the view that in protozoa this enzyme is regulated by a redox mechanism. As well, we propose a new pathway for UDP-galactose production mediated by the promiscuous UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase of this organism.
Assuntos
Galactosefosfatos/metabolismo , Giardia lamblia/enzimologia , Proteínas de Protozoários/metabolismo , UTP-Glucose-1-Fosfato Uridililtransferase/metabolismo , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Biocatálise , Clonagem Molecular , Cisteína/metabolismo , Eletroforese em Gel de Poliacrilamida , Escherichia coli/genética , Giardia lamblia/genética , Glucofosfatos/metabolismo , Cinética , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Oxirredução , Proteínas de Protozoários/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , Homologia de Sequência de Aminoácidos , Especificidade por Substrato , Tiorredoxinas/metabolismo , Fatores de Tempo , UTP-Glucose-1-Fosfato Uridililtransferase/genéticaRESUMO
Classic galactosemia is a human autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the GALT gene (GAL7 in yeast), which encodes the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase. Here we show that the unfolded protein response pathway is triggered by galactose in two yeast models of galactosemia: lithium-treated cells and the gal7Δ mutant. The synthesis of galactose-1-phosphate is essential to trigger the unfolded protein response under these conditions because the deletion of the galactokinase-encoding gene GAL1 completely abolishes unfolded protein response activation and galactose toxicity. Impairment of the unfolded protein response in both yeast models makes cells even more sensitive to galactose, unmasking its cytotoxic effect. These results indicate that endoplasmic reticulum stress is induced under galactosemic conditions and underscores the importance of the unfolded protein response pathway to cellular adaptation in these models of classic galactosemia.
Assuntos
Galactosemias/enzimologia , Galactosemias/genética , Regulação Fúngica da Expressão Gênica , Resposta a Proteínas não Dobradas , Processamento Alternativo , Fatores de Transcrição de Zíper de Leucina Básica/metabolismo , Retículo Endoplasmático/metabolismo , Proteínas Fúngicas/metabolismo , Galactoquinase/metabolismo , Galactose/metabolismo , Galactosefosfatos/química , Glicoproteínas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Choque Térmico HSP70/metabolismo , Humanos , Mutação/efeitos dos fármacos , Oxirredutases atuantes sobre Doadores de Grupo Enxofre/metabolismo , Dobramento de Proteína , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , Proteínas Repressoras/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismoRESUMO
OBJECTIVES: To determine the long-term outcome of dietary intervention in siblings from 14 Irish families with classical galactosemia (McKusick 230400), an autosomal recessive disorder of carbohydrate metabolism and galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) deficiency. STUDY DESIGN: Outcomes in siblings on dietary galactose restriction were studied to evaluate whether birth order (ie, time of commencement of diet) and compliance with lactose-restricted diet (galactose intake > or < 20 mg /day), assessed by dietary recall and biochemical monitoring of galactose-1-phosphate [Gal-1-P] and galactitol values, affected outcomes. The outcome variables assessed were IQ, speech, and language assessment scores, neurologic examination results, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. RESULTS: There was a high incidence of complications in the overall group, particularly speech and language delay (77%) and low IQ (71%). There was no significant difference in outcome between earlier-treated and later-treated siblings or any correlation with mean Gal-1-P or galactitol values. In most cases, cerebral white matter disease was evident on MRI scanning, with evidence of progressive cerebellar degeneration seen in 2 highly compliant families. CONCLUSION: The subjects with a higher galactose intake did not exhibit an increased incidence of complications; conversely, those who were very compliant with dietary restrictions did not have more favorable outcomes.
Assuntos
Encéfalo/patologia , Galactosemias/complicações , Galactosemias/dietoterapia , Testes de Inteligência , Transtornos da Linguagem/etiologia , Irmãos , Adolescente , Adulto , Ordem de Nascimento , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Registros de Dieta , Feminino , Galactitol/urina , Galactose/administração & dosagem , Galactosemias/genética , Galactosefosfatos/sangue , Humanos , Lactente , Irlanda , Lactose/administração & dosagem , Espectroscopia de Ressonância Magnética , Masculino , Exame Neurológico , Cooperação do Paciente , Estudos Retrospectivos , Adulto JovemRESUMO
In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, lithium induces a 'galactosemia-like' phenotype as a consequence of inhibition of phosphoglucomutase, a key enzyme in galactose metabolism. Induced galactose toxicity is prevented by deletion of GAL4, which inhibits the transcriptional activation of genes involved in galactose metabolism and by deletion of the galactokinase (GAL1), indicating that galactose-1-phosphate, a phosphorylated intermediate of the Leloir pathway, is the toxic compound. As an alternative to inhibiting entry and metabolism of galactose, we investigated whether deviation of galactose metabolism from the Leloir pathway would also overcome the galactosemic effect of lithium. We show that cells overexpressing the aldose reductase GRE3, which converts galactose to galactitol, are more tolerant to lithium than wild-type cells when grown in galactose medium and they accumulate more galactitol and less galactose-1-phosphate. Overexpression of GRE3 also suppressed the galactose growth defect of the 'galactosemic'gal7- and gal10-deleted strains, which lack galactose-1-P-uridyltransferase or UDP-galactose-4-epimerase activities, respectively. Furthermore, the effect of GRE3 was independent of the inositol monophosphatases INM1 and INM2. We propose that lithium induces a galactosemic state in yeast and that inhibition of the Leloir pathway before the phosphorylation step or stimulation of galactitol production suppresses lithium-induced galactose toxicity.
Assuntos
Aldeído Redutase/metabolismo , Antimaníacos/farmacologia , Galactose , Lítio/farmacologia , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/efeitos dos fármacos , Regulação para Cima , Aldeído Redutase/genética , Galactoquinase/genética , Galactoquinase/metabolismo , Galactose/metabolismo , Galactose/toxicidade , Galactosefosfatos/metabolismo , Deleção de Genes , Regulação Fúngica da Expressão Gênica , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/enzimologia , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismoRESUMO
Nuclear envelope (NE) and microsomal glucosa-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase) activities were compared. Intact microsomes were unable to hydrolyze mannose-6-phosphate (M-6-P), on the other hand, intact NE hydrolyzes this substrate. Galactose-6-phosphate showed to be a good substrate for both NE and microsomal enzymes, with similar latency to that obtained with M-6-P using microsomes. In consequence, this substrate was used to measure the NE integrity. The kinetic parameters (Kii and Kis) of the intact NE G-6-Pase for the phlorizin inhibition using glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) and M-6-P as substrates, were very similar. The NE T1 transporter was more sensitive to amiloride than the microsomal T1. The microsomal system was more sensitive to N-ethylmalemide (NEM) than the NE and the latter was insensitive to anion transport inhibitors DIDS and SITS, which strongly affect the microsomal enzyme. The above results allowed to postulate the presence of a hexose-6-phosphate transporter in the NE which is able to carry G-6-P and M-6-P, and perhaps other hexose-6-phosphate which could be different from that present in microsomes or, if it is the same, its activity could by modified by the membrane system where it is included. The higher PPi hydrolysis activity of the intact NE G-6-Pase in comparison to the intact microsomal, suggests differences between the Pi/PPi transport (T2) of both systems. The lower sensitivity of the NE G-6-Pase to NEM suggests that the catalytic subunit of this system has some differences with the microsomal isoform.
Assuntos
Glucose-6-Fosfatase/metabolismo , Fígado/enzimologia , Membrana Nuclear/enzimologia , Ácido 4,4'-Di-Isotiocianoestilbeno-2,2'-Dissulfônico/farmacologia , Ácido 4-Acetamido-4'-isotiocianatostilbeno-2,2'-dissulfônico/farmacologia , Amilorida/farmacologia , Animais , Antiporters/metabolismo , Difosfatos/metabolismo , Etilmaleimida/farmacologia , Galactosefosfatos/metabolismo , Glucose-6-Fosfatase/antagonistas & inibidores , Glucose-6-Fosfato/metabolismo , Hidrólise , Isoenzimas/antagonistas & inibidores , Isoenzimas/metabolismo , Masculino , Manosefosfatos/metabolismo , Microssomos Hepáticos/enzimologia , Proteínas de Transporte de Monossacarídeos/antagonistas & inibidores , Proteínas de Transporte de Monossacarídeos/metabolismo , Florizina/farmacologia , Fosfatos/metabolismo , Ratos , Ratos Sprague-Dawley , Especificidade por SubstratoRESUMO
Hyphal development in Candida albicans contributes to virulence, and inhibition of filamentation is a target for the development of antifungal agents. Lithium is known to impair Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth in galactose-containing media by inhibition of phosphoglucomutase, which is essential for galactose metabolism. Lithium-mediated phosphoglucomutase inhibition is reverted by Mg(2+). In this study we have assessed the effect of lithium upon C. albicans and found that growth is inhibited preferentially in galactose-containing media. No accumulation of glucose-1-phosphate or galactose-1-phosphate was detected when yeasts were grown in the presence of galactose and 15 mM LiCl, though we observed that in vitro lithium-mediated phosphoglucomutase inhibition takes place with an IC(50) of 2 mM. Furthermore, growth inhibition by lithium was not reverted by Mg(2+). These results show that lithium-mediated inhibition of growth in a galactose-containing medium is not due to inhibition of galactose conversion to glucose-6-phosphate but is probably due to inhibition of a signaling pathway. Deletion of the Ser-Thr protein phosphatase SIT4 and treatment with rapamycin have been shown to inhibit filamentous differentiation. We observed that C. albicans filamentation was inhibited by lithium in solid medium containing either galactose as the sole carbon source or 10% fetal bovine serum. These results suggest that suppression of hyphal outgrowth by lithium could be related to inhibition of the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway.
Assuntos
Antifúngicos/farmacologia , Candida albicans/efeitos dos fármacos , Candida albicans/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Lítio/farmacologia , Candida albicans/química , Meios de Cultura/química , Galactose/metabolismo , Galactosefosfatos/análise , Deleção de Genes , Glucofosfatos/análise , Hifas/efeitos dos fármacos , Hifas/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Concentração Inibidora 50 , Magnésio/metabolismo , Fosfoglucomutase/antagonistas & inibidores , Proteína Fosfatase 2/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Sirolimo/farmacologiaRESUMO
Hexokinase is released from Type A sites of brain mitochondria in the presence of glucose 6-phosphate (Glc-6-P); enzyme bound to Type B sites remains bound. Hexokinase of freshly isolated bovine brain mitochondria (Type A:Type B, approximately 40:60) selectively uses intramitochondrial ATP as substrate and is relatively insensitive to the competitive (vs ATP) inhibitor and Glc-6-P analog, 1,5-anhydroglucitol 6-phosphate (1,5-AnG-6-P). After removal of hexokinase bound at Type A sites, the remaining enzyme, bound at Type B sites, does not show selectivity for intramitochondrial ATP and has increased sensitivity to 1,5-AnG-6-P. Thus, the properties of the enzyme bound at Type B sites are modified by removal of hexokinase bound at Type A sites. It is suggested that mechanisms for regulation of mitochondrial hexokinase activity, and thereby cerebral glycolytic metabolism, may depend on the ratio of Type A:Type B sites, which varies in different species.