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BACKGROUND: Leprosy remains concentrated among the poorest communities in low-and middle-income countries and it is one of the primary infectious causes of disability. Although there have been increasing advances in leprosy surveillance worldwide, leprosy underreporting is still common and can hinder decision-making regarding the distribution of financial and health resources and thereby limit the effectiveness of interventions. In this study, we estimated the proportion of unreported cases of leprosy in Brazilian microregions. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Using data collected between 2007 to 2015 from each of the 557 Brazilian microregions, we applied a Bayesian hierarchical model that used the presence of grade 2 leprosy-related physical disabilities as a direct indicator of delayed diagnosis and a proxy for the effectiveness of local leprosy surveillance program. We also analyzed some relevant factors that influence spatial variability in the observed mean incidence rate in the Brazilian microregions, highlighting the importance of socioeconomic factors and how they affect the levels of underreporting. We corrected leprosy incidence rates for each Brazilian microregion and estimated that, on average, 33,252 (9.6%) new leprosy cases went unreported in the country between 2007 to 2015, with this proportion varying from 8.4% to 14.1% across the Brazilian States. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The magnitude and distribution of leprosy underreporting were adequately explained by a model using Grade 2 disability as a marker for the ability of the system to detect new missing cases. The percentage of missed cases was significant, and efforts are warranted to improve leprosy case detection. Our estimates in Brazilian microregions can be used to guide effective interventions, efficient resource allocation, and target actions to mitigate transmission.

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Leprosy is a neglected tropical disease predominately affecting poor and marginalized populations. To test the hypothesis that poverty-alleviating policies might be associated with reduced leprosy incidence, we evaluated the association between the Brazilian Bolsa Familia (BFP) conditional cash transfer program and new leprosy case detection using linked records from 12,949,730 families in the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort (2007-2014). After propensity score matching BFP beneficiary to nonbeneficiary families, we used Mantel-Haenszel tests and Poisson regressions to estimate incidence rate ratios for new leprosy case detection and secondary endpoints related to operational classification and leprosy-associated disabilities at diagnosis. Overall, cumulative leprosy incidence was 17.4/100,000 person-years at risk (95% CI: 17.1, 17.7) and markedly higher in "priority" (high-burden) versus "nonpriority" (low-burden) municipalities (22.8/100,000 person-years at risk, 95% confidence interval (CI): 22.2, 23.3, compared with 14.3/100,000 person-years at risk, 95% CI: 14.0, 14.7). After matching, BFP participation was not associated with leprosy incidence overall (incidence rate ratio (IRR)Poisson = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.90, 1.04) but was associated with lower leprosy incidence when restricted to families living in high-burden municipalities (IRRPoisson = 0.86, 95% CI: 0.77, 0.96). In high-burden municipalities, the association was particularly pronounced for paucibacillary cases (IRRPoisson = 0.82, 95% CI: 0.68, 0.98) and cases with leprosy-associated disabilities (IRRPoisson = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.65, 0.97). These findings provide policy-relevant evidence that social policies might contribute to ongoing leprosy control efforts in high-burden communities.

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BACKGROUND: Indirect financial costs and barriers to health-care access might contribute to leprosy treatment non-adherence. We estimated the association of the Brazilian conditional cash transfer programme, the Programa Bolsa Família (PBF), on leprosy treatment adherence and cure in patients in Brazil. METHODS: In this quasi-experimental study, we linked baseline demographic and socioeconomic information for individuals who entered the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort between Jan 1, 2007, and Dec 31, 2014, with the PBF payroll database and the Information System for Notifiable Diseases, which includes nationwide leprosy registries. Individuals were eligible for inclusion if they had a household member older than 15 years and had not received PBF aid or been diagnosed with leprosy before entering the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort; they were excluded if they were partial receivers of PBF benefits, had missing data, or had a monthly per-capita income greater than BRL200 (US$50). Individuals who were PBF beneficiaries before leprosy diagnosis were matched to those who were not beneficiaries through propensity-score matching (1:1) with replacement on the basis of baseline covariates, including sex, age, race or ethnicity, education, work, income, place of residence, and household characteristics. We used logistic regression to assess the average treatment effect on the treated of receipt of PBF benefits on leprosy treatment adherence (six or more multidrug therapy doses for paucibacillary cases or 12 or more doses for multibacillary cases) and cure in individuals of all ages. We stratified our analysis according to operational disease classification (paucibacillary or multibacillary). We also did a subgroup analysis of paediatric leprosy restricted to children aged up to 15 years. FINDINGS: We included 11 456 new leprosy cases, of whom 8750 (76·3%) had received PBF before diagnosis and 2706 (23·6%) had not. Overall, 9508 (83·0%) patients adhered to treatment and 10 077 (88·0%) were cured. After propensity score matching, receiving PBF before diagnosis was associated with adherence to treatment (OR 1·22, 95% CI 1·01-1·48) and cure (1·26, 1·01-1·58). PBF receipt did not significantly improve treatment adherence (1·37, 0·98-1·91) or cure (1·12, 0·75-1·67) in patients with paucibacillary leprosy. For patients with multibacillary disease, PBF beneficiaries had better treatment adherence (1·37, 1·08-1·74) and cure (1·43, 1·09-1·90) than non-beneficiaries. In the propensity score-matched analysis in 2654 children younger than 15 years with leprosy, PBF exposure was not associated with leprosy treatment adherence (1·55, 0·89-2·68) or cure (1·57, 0·83-2·97). INTERPRETATION: Our results suggest that being a beneficiary of the PBF, which facilitates cash transfers and improved access to health care, is associated with greater leprosy multidrug therapy adherence and cure in multibacillary cases. These results are especially relevant for patients with multibacillary disease, who are treated for a longer period and have lower cure rates than those with paucibacillary disease. FUNDING: CONFAP/ESRC/MRC/BBSRC/CNPq/FAPDF-Doenças Negligenciadas, the UK Medical Research Council, the Wellcome Trust, and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior-Brazil (CAPES).

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ABSTRACT Objective: To investigate in the literature the relation of socioeconomic factors in the incidence of the disease and other outcomes related to leprosy. Method: Integrative review conducted in Lilacs, Medline, Scopus databases and SciELO online library with studies from 2000 to 2016. Results: 32 studies were included. Only studies that analyzed statistical associations of socioeconomic factors and outcomes related to leprosy were selected. Conclusion: Leprosy is greatly affected by the social context in which the patient is inserted, the chances of exposure to illness are the result of a set of not only individual aspects, but also of contexts or collective conditions. It is imperative for Nursing, as an essential part of the multiprofessional team entrusted with the care and surveillance of the disease, to recognize these factors to predict unfavorable outcomes and to develop new practices capable of reducing inequities.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Investigar en la literatura la relación de los factores socioeconómicos en la ocurrencia de la enfermedad y otros resultados relacionados con la lepra. Método: Revisión integrativa realizada en las bases de datos Lilacs, Medline, Scopus y en la biblioteca en línea SciELO con estudios de 2000 a 2016. Resultados: Se incluyeron 32 estudios. Sólo las encuestas que analizaron las asociaciones estadísticas de los factores socioeconómicos y los resultados relacionados con la lepra fueron seleccionados. Conclusión: La lepra sufre una gran influencia del contexto social en que el paciente está inserto, las posibilidades de exposición al enfermo se derivan de un conjunto de aspectos no sólo individuales, sino también de contextos o condiciones colectivas. Es imperativo a la Enfermería, como parte esencial del equipo multiprofesional encargado, para el cuidado y vigilancia de la enfermedad, reconocer esos factores para predecir desenlaces desfavorables y construir nuevas prácticas capaces de reducir iniquidades.

RESUMO Objetivo: Investigar na literatura a relação dos fatores socioeconômicos na ocorrência da doença e outros desfechos relacionados à hanseníase. Método: Revisão integrativa realizada nas bases de dados Lilacs, Medline, Scopus e na biblioteca on-line SciELO com estudos de 2000 a 2016. Resultados: Foram incluídos 32 estudos. Apenas pesquisas que analisaram associações estatísticas dos fatores socioeconômicos e os desfechos relacionados à hanseníase foram selecionadas. Conclusão: A hanseníase sofre grande influência do contexto social em que o doente está inserido, as chances de exposição ao adoecimento são resultantes de um conjunto de aspectos não apenas individuais, mas também de contextos ou condições coletivas. É imperativo à Enfermagem, como parte essencial da equipe multiprofissional incumbida, para o cuidado e vigilância da doença, reconhecer esses fatores para predizer desfechos desfavoráveis e construir novas práticas capazes de reduzir iniquidades.

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OBJECTIVE: To investigate in the literature the relation of socioeconomic factors in the incidence of the disease and other outcomes related to leprosy. METHOD: Integrative review conducted in Lilacs, Medline, Scopus databases and SciELO online library with studies from 2000 to 2016. RESULTS: 32 studies were included. Only studies that analyzed statistical associations of socioeconomic factors and outcomes related to leprosy were selected. CONCLUSION: Leprosy is greatly affected by the social context in which the patient is inserted, the chances of exposure to illness are the result of a set of not only individual aspects, but also of contexts or collective conditions. It is imperative for Nursing, as an essential part of the multiprofessional team entrusted with the care and surveillance of the disease, to recognize these factors to predict unfavorable outcomes and to develop new practices capable of reducing inequities.

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BACKGROUND: Leprosy continues to be a public health problem in many countries. Difficulties faced by health services include late diagnosis, under-reporting of new cases, adequate monitoring of disabilities and treatment. Furthermore, systematic follow-up after completion of treatment is important, when new disabilities may occur, or existing disabilities may get worse. The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of leprosy-associated grade 2 disabilities (G2D) after completion of multidrug therapy (MDT) and to identify factors associated with G2D. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study of 222 leprosy cases registered in Vitória da Conquista, Bahia state, Brazil from 2001-2014. We performed a clinical examination of the study participants and collected socio-economic and clinical information by interview. We identified factors associated with grade 2 disability (G2D) using logis tic regression. RESULTS: In total, 38 (17.1%) participants were diagnosed with G2D, and 106 (47.7%) with grade 1 disabilities (G1D). The following independent factors were significantly associated with G2D: occurrence of leprosy reaction (adjusted OR = 2.5; 95%CI = 1.09-5.77), thickening and/or tenderness of one or more nerve trunks (adjusted OR = 3.0; CI = 1.13-8.01) and unemployment (adjusted OR = 7.17; CI = 2.44-21.07). CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that physical disabilities remain after completion of MDT and frequently occur in an endemic area in Brazil. Finding new ways to reduce the burden of disability are urgently needed, and may include systematic follow-up of patients after treatment completion combined with evidence-based preventative measures.

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Over 200,000 new cases of leprosy are detected each year, of which approximately 7% are associated with grade-2 disabilities (G2Ds). For achieving leprosy elimination, one of the main challenges will be targeting higher risk groups within endemic communities. Nevertheless, the socioeconomic risk markers of leprosy remain poorly understood. To address this gap we systematically reviewed MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase, LILACS and Web of Science for original articles investigating the social determinants of leprosy in countries with > 1000 cases/year in at least five years between 2006 and 2016. Cohort, case-control, cross-sectional, and ecological studies were eligible for inclusion; qualitative studies, case reports, and reviews were excluded. Out of 1,534 non-duplicate records, 96 full-text articles were reviewed, and 39 met inclusion criteria. 17 were included in random-effects meta-analyses for sex, occupation, food shortage, household contact, crowding, and lack of clean (i.e., treated) water. The majority of studies were conducted in Brazil, India, or Bangladesh while none were undertaken in low-income countries. Descriptive synthesis indicated that increased age, poor sanitary and socioeconomic conditions, lower level of education, and food-insecurity are risk markers for leprosy. Additionally, in pooled estimates, leprosy was associated with being male (RR = 1.33, 95% CI = 1.06-1.67), performing manual labor (RR = 2.15, 95% CI = 0.97-4.74), suffering from food shortage in the past (RR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.05-1.85), being a household contact of a leprosy patient (RR = 3.40, 95% CI = 2.24-5.18), and living in a crowded household (≥5 per household) (RR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.14-1.67). Lack of clean water did not appear to be a risk marker of leprosy (RR = 0.94, 95% CI = 0.65-1.35). Additionally, ecological studies provided evidence that lower inequality, better human development, increased healthcare coverage, and cash transfer programs are linked with lower leprosy risks. These findings point to a consistent relationship between leprosy and unfavorable economic circumstances and, thereby, underscore the pressing need of leprosy control policies to target socially vulnerable groups in high-burden countries.

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Apesar dos avanços no combate a hanseníase, as dificuldades em erradicar a doença persiste no cenário brasileiro. Parte da população ainda é carente de informações acerca deste agravo, o que leva a procurar os serviços de saúde tardiamente. Associado a isso, o diagnóstico e o tratamento tardio repercutem em incapacidades físicas graves. Tais incapacidades impactam significativamente na vida do indivíduo, sobretudo, no trabalho. A inabilidade ao trabalho predispõe a busca por benefícios previdenciários. Tratando-se de uma doença marcada pela violação de direitos humanos desde o isolamento compulsório até os dias de hoje, a discussão referente a proteção dos direitos previdenciários dos indivíduos acometidos, se mostra relevante. O estudo analisou a garantia dos direitos previdenciários e a trajetória na defesa desses direitos por indivíduos acometidos por hanseníase no município de Vitória da Conquista (BA), por meio de uma pesquisa qualitativa de delineamento exploratório. Toda a discussão levantada pelo estudo foi centrada na narrativa de vinte sujeitos que descreveram a trajetória em busca da garantia do direito previdenciário. Diante das ponderações verificadas no estudo, conclui-se que embora muitos indivíduos acometidos pela doença não tenham registrado dificuldades em conseguir o benefício previdenciário, para muitos dos sujeitos, essa trajetória foi marcada por adversidades.

Despite of advances in the fight against Hansens disease, persists in the Brazilian scene the difficulties in eradicating the disease. Part of population is still lacking information about this injury, which leads them to seek health services late. Associated with this, diagnosis and late treatment reverberate in severe physical disabilities. Such disabilities impact significantly on the individuals life, especially at work. The inability to work predisposes the search for social security benefits. Treating of a disease marked by violations of human rights, since from the compulsory isolation until the present days, the discussion regarding to protection of pension rights of affected individuals, it’s shown relevant. The study examined the warranty of pension rights and the trajectory in defense these rights for individuals affected by leprosy in the Vitoria da Conquista Town (Bahia, Brasil), through a qualitative research of exploratory design. The whole discussion raised by the study was focused on the narrative of twenty subjects who described the journey in search of the guarantee the social security law. On the weights observed in the study, it was concluded that although many individuals affected by the disease have not registered difficulties in achieving social security benefit, for many others subjects, this trend has been marked by adversity.

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BACKGROUND: Social determinants can affect the transmission of leprosy and its progression to disease. Not much is known about the effectiveness of welfare and primary health care policies on the reduction of leprosy occurrence. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of the Brazilian cash transfer (Bolsa Família Program-BFP) and primary health care (Family Health Program-FHP) programs on new case detection rate of leprosy. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We conducted the study with a mixed ecological design, a combination of an ecological multiple-group and time-trend design in the period 2004-2011 with the Brazilian municipalities as unit of analysis. The main independent variables were the BFP and FHP coverage at the municipal level and the outcome was new case detection rate of leprosy. Leprosy new cases, BFP and FHP coverage, population and other relevant socio-demographic covariates were obtained from national databases. We used fixed-effects negative binomial models for panel data adjusted for relevant socio-demographic covariates. A total of 1,358 municipalities were included in the analysis. In the studied period, while the municipal coverage of BFP and FHP increased, the new case detection rate of leprosy decreased. Leprosy new case detection rate was significantly reduced in municipalities with consolidated BFP coverage (Risk Ratio 0.79; 95% CI  =0.74-0.83) and significantly increased in municipalities with FHP coverage in the medium (72-95%) (Risk Ratio 1.05; 95% CI  =1.02-1.09) and higher coverage tertiles (>95%) (Risk Ratio 1.12; 95% CI  =1.08-1.17). CONCLUSIONS: At the same time the Family Health Program had been effective in increasing the new case detection rate of leprosy in Brazil, the Bolsa Família Program was associated with a reduction of the new case detection rate of leprosy that we propose reflects a reduction in leprosy incidence.

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A hanseniase continua apresentando coeficientes de prevalencia superiores a 1 caso/10.00 habitantes em 12 paises no mundo. No Brasil, apesar de todo o esforco internacional e nacional, a meta de eliminacao da doenca proposta pela Organizacao Mundial da Saude - reducao da prevelencia para menos de um caso para cada dez mil habitantes -, foi postergada para 2005. Para analisar a endemia hansenica no municipio de Fernandopolis/SP partiu-se do pressuposto de que a ocupacao espacial da populacao e um processo socialmente construido, e sendo que o espaco social e determinante no processo saude-doenca, sendo as condicoes de vida da populacao a expressao mais significativa desse processo. O presente estudo identificou e agrupou areas homogeneas de risco dentro do municipio de Fernandopolis. Atraves das variaveis do Censo Demografico de 2000, relativas a renda, a escolaridade, a estrutura urbana e as condicoes de habitacao, criou-se um Indice de Carencia Social, classificando os setores censitarios urbanos e verificando a associacao dessa carencia com os coeficientes de deteccao da doenca. O metodo proposto contribuiu para detectar as desigualdades socio-economicas e identificar a coerencia com os padroes da distribuicao da ocorrencia da hanseniase, constatando areas de risco. Evidenciaram-se areas prioritarias para o desenvolvimento de acoes de saude, que possibilitara instrumentalizar o planejamento em nivel local e permitir a racionalizacao de recursos financeiros

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