RESUMO
NASA: Total expenditures for space activities by civilian governments totaled $20.3 billion in 2002. National summaries by expenditure and type of flight are provided.^ieng
Assuntos
Órgãos Governamentais/economia , Agências Internacionais/economia , Voo Espacial/economia , Voo Espacial/tendências , Brasil , Canadá , China , Europa (Continente) , França , Alemanha , Órgãos Governamentais/tendências , Índia , Agências Internacionais/tendências , Israel , Itália , Japão , Federação Russa , Espanha , Estados Unidos , United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration/economia , United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration/tendênciasRESUMO
Radiation measurements made onboard the MIR Orbital Station have spanned nearly a decade and covered two solar cycles, including one of the largest solar particle events, one of the largest magnetic storms, and a mean solar radio flux level reaching 250 x 10(4) Jansky that has been observed in the last 40 years. The cosmonaut absorbed dose rates varied from about 450 microGy day-1 during solar minimum to approximately half this value during the last solar maximum. There is a factor of about two in dose rate within a given module, and a similar variation from module to module. The average radiation quality factor during solar minimum, using the ICRP-26 definition, was about 2.4. The drift of the South Atlantic Anomaly was measured to be 6.0 +/- 0.5 degrees W, and 1.6 +/- 0.5 degrees N. These measurements are of direct applicability to the International Space Station. This paper represents a comprehensive review of Mir Space Station radiation data available from a variety of sources.
Assuntos
Radiação Cósmica , Monitoramento de Radiação/instrumentação , Atividade Solar , Voo Espacial/instrumentação , Ausência de Peso , Astronautas , Oceano Atlântico , Atividade Extraespaçonave , Humanos , Nêutrons , Prótons , Doses de Radiação , Proteção Radiológica , América do Sul , Voo Espacial/tendências , Astronave/instrumentação , Dosimetria Termoluminescente/instrumentaçãoRESUMO
The International Space Station (ISS), as the largest international science and engineering program in history, features unprecedented technical, cost, scheduling, managerial, and international complexity. A number of major milestones have been accomplished to date, including the construction of major elements of flight hardware, the development of operations and sustaining engineering centers, astronaut training, and eight Space Shuttle/Mir docking missions. International partner contributions and levels of participation have been baselined, and negotiations and discussions are nearing completion regarding bartering arrangements for services and new hardware. As ISS is successfully executed, it can pave the way for more inspiring cooperative achievements in the future.