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Different tests measure text comprehension, including the cloze gap-filling test, often used for language learning. Different studies hypothesized cognitive strategies in this type of test and their relationship with working memory and performance. However, no study investigated the cloze test, working memory, and possible cognitive strategies, while performing the test. Therefore, this study aimed to identify cognitive visual strategies in the cloze test by applying an unsupervised algorithm and to analyze the relationship between these strategies with working memory and performance in the cloze test. Our sample consisted of 51 university students, the largest sample in studies of cognitive strategies with cloze tests. Participants answered an 11-item cloze test in a computer with eye-tracking, a verbal working memory test, and a visuospatial working memory test. Our analysis of participants' scanpath identified two main strategies: one with fewer toggles between text and word bank and fewer fixations than the other one, indicating the existence of a global strategy. Furthermore, a model predicting the efficiency of participants in the cloze test found that item complexity, using a global strategy, and higher scores of working memory were the most significant predictors. These results confirm the hypothesis of a global strategy being related to successfully achieving higher-order reading processes.

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Resumen: Este trabajo se propone un análisis comparativo de las actividades de lectura en dos asignaturas del primer año de la educación secundaria argentina: Prácticas del Lenguaje (PDL) y Ciencias Sociales (CS). Se grabaron en audio ocho clases, cuatro de cada uno de los espacios curriculares. Se analizaron de acuerdo con propuestas teóricas preexistentes que permiten segmentar las observaciones en diferentes unidades, caracterizar los tipos y funciones de lecturas y las estrategias promovidas. En las sesiones de PDL fue más frecuente la lectura como actividad típica de aula y se realizó poniendo en juego mayor variedad de estrategias que en CS. La lectura colectiva genuina mental predominó en PDL, mientras que en CS prevaleció la lectura por parte de las profesoras con comentarios. Los resultados permiten introducir reflexiones relativas a las intervenciones docentes en materia de lectura según la asignatura escolar y los distintos desafíos que supone su enseñanza.

Abstract: This study aims to perform a comparative analysis of reading activities in two first-year subjects of secondary school in Argentina: Prácticas del Lenguaje (PDL) [Language and Literature (LAL)] and Ciencias Sociales (CS) [Social Studies (SS)]. Eight lessons were audio-recorded, four from each study area. They were analyzed in accordance with pre-existing theoretical proposals, which made it possible to segment the observations into different units, characterize the types and functions of readings and the strategies promoted. In Language and Literature, reading was a more frequent classroom activity and was carried out with a greater variety of strategies than in Social Studies. Genuine mental collective reading prevailed in Language and Literature, whereas teachers' reading with comments prevailed in Social Studies. The results lead to reflections on different teaching interventions in reading practices according to the school subject and the different challenges involved in teaching them.

Résumé : Cet article propose une analyse comparative des activités de lecture dans deux enseignements de la première année de l'enseignement secondaire argentin : Pratiques du langage (PDL) et Sciences sociales (CS). Huit classes ont été enregistrées en audio, quatre de chacun des espaces du programme. On a analysé selon des propositions théoriques préexistantes qui permettent de segmenter les observations en différentes unités, caractériser les types et fonctions de lectures et les stratégies promues. Dans les sessions PDL, la lecture fût plus fréquente comme activité typique de la classe et elle s'est réalisée en utilisant une plus grande variété de stratégies que dans CS. La véritable lecture collective mentale prédomina en PdL, mais en CS c'est la lecture par les enseignants avec des commentaires qui a prévalu. Les résultats permettent d'introduire des réflexions sur les interventions pédagogiques concernant la lecture selon l'enseignement scolaire, et les différents enjeux que leur enseignement comporte.

Resumo: Este trabalho propõe uma análise comparativa das atividades de leitura em duas disciplinas do primeiro ano do ensino médio argentino: Prática de Linguagem (PDL) e Ciências Sociais (CS). Gravaram-se em áudio oito aulas, quatro de cada um dos espaços curriculares. Analisaram-se de acordo com as propostas teóricas preexistentes as quais permitem segmentar as observações em diferentes unidades, caracterizar os tipos e funções de leituras e as estratégias promovidas. Nas sessões de PDL foi mais frequente a leitura como atividade típica de sala de aula e se realizou investindo a maior variedade de estratégias que nas CS. A leitura coletiva genuína mental predominou na PDL, enquanto que nas CS prevaleceu a leitura por parte das professoras com comentários. Os resultados permitem introduzir reflexões relativas às intervenções docentes em matéria de leitura segundo a disciplina escolar, e os distintos desafios que supõe seu ensino.

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O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar se a Compreensão de Textos Literários e Científicos de uma amostra de alunos do Ensino Médio contribuiu para o Desempenho Acadêmico desses alunos em disciplinas que não apenas de linguagem. Participaram dessa pesquisa 75 estudantes do Ensino Médio de uma escola Pública do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. A média de idade foi de 17,07 anos (DP = 0,74). A compreensão de leitura científica foi avaliada com dois pequenos textos seguidos de perguntas de múltipla escolha, o teste de Compreensão de leitura literária foi um teste de Cloze, a inteligência geral foi avaliada pelas Matrizes Progressivas de Raven e a avaliação de desempenho escolar foi calculada pela média do Coeficiente de Rendimento dos alunos. Análises de regressão mostraram que a Compreensão de Leitura de Textos Científicos contribuiu para o desempenho acadêmico medido pelo coeficiente de rendimento médio, mesmo depois de controlado a inteligência não verbal. Os resultados corroboram com estudos que apontam a importância da compreensão de texto para o sucesso acadêmico em todo o ciclo escolar. (AU)

The present study aimed to analyze whether high school students' Comprehension of Literary and Scientific Texts out of a sample of High School students is associated with the academic performance in subject matters not related to language specifically. Seventy-five high school students from a public school in the state of Rio de Janeiro participated in this research. The mean age was 17.07 years (SD = 0.74). Scientific reading comprehension was assessed with two small texts followed by multiple choice questions, the literally reading comprehension was followed by a Cloze test, overall score was assessed using Raven Progressive Matrices and the mean grade score from the students was a measure of their school performance. Regression analyzes showed that Reading Comprehension of Scientific Texts contributed to academic performance measured by the mean score of grades even after controlling for nonverbal intelligence. The results corroborate studies that point out the importance of text comprehension for academic success throughout the school cycle. (AU)

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar si la comprensión de los textos literarios y científicos de una muestra de estudiantes de secundaria contribuyó con el desempeño académico de estos alumnos en asignaturas además de las de lenguaje. Setenta y cinco estudiantes de secundaria de una escuela pública en el estado de Río de Janeiro participaron en esta investigación. La edad promedio fue de 17.07 años (DE = 0.74). La comprensión lectora científica se evaluó con dos textos pequeños seguidos de preguntas de opción múltiple, la prueba de comprensión lectora literaria fue una prueba Cloze, la inteligencia general se evaluó mediante las Matrices Progresivas de Raven y la evaluación del desempeño escolar se calculó mediante promedio del coeficiente de desempeño de los estudiantes. Los análisis de regresión mostraron que la comprensión lectora de textos científicos contribuyó al rendimiento académico medido por el coeficiente de rendimiento promedio, incluso después de controlar la inteligencia no verbal. Los resultados corroboran con estudios que señalan la importancia de la comprensión de textos para el éxito académico a lo largo del ciclo escolar. (AU)

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Word order alternation has been described as one of the most productive information structure markers and discourse organizers across languages. Psycholinguistic evidence has shown that word order is a crucial cue for argument interpretation. Previous studies about Spanish sentence comprehension have shown greater difficulty to parse sentences that present a word order that does not respect the order of participants of the verb's lexico-semantic structure, irrespective to whether the sentences follow the canonical word order of the language or not. This difficulty has been accounted as the cognitive cost related to the miscomputation of prominence status of the argument that precedes the verb. Nonetheless, the authors only analyzed the use of alternative word orders in isolated sentences, leaving aside the pragmatic motivation of word order alternation. By means of an eye-tracking task, the current study provides further evidence about the role of information structure for the comprehension of sentences with alternative word order and verb type, and sheds light on the interaction between syntax, semantics and pragmatics. We analyzed both "early" and "late" eye-movement measures as well as accuracy and response times to comprehension questions. Results showed an overall influence of information structure reflected in a modulation of late eye-movement measures as well as offline measures like total reading time and questions response time. However, effects related to the miscomputation of prominence status did not fade away when sentences were preceded by a context that led to non-canonical word order of constituents, showing that prominence computation is a core mechanism for argument interpretation, even in sentences preceded by context.

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Resumen Antecedente: aunque se ha verificado experimentalmente la existencia de efectos específicos de la emoción sobre comprensión de textos en adultos, no existe información referida a adolescentes, lo cual resulta relevante con vistas al diseño de intervenciones. Objetivo: el objetivo de la presente investigación es evaluar si los estados emocionales conceptualizados dimensionalmente (valencia, activación y dominancia) afectan la comprensión y la recuperación de textos escritos en adolescentes. Método: tras la validación de instrumentos, se realizaron 3 experimentos (n = 468) en los cuales se indujeron emociones que diferían en una dimensión (valencia, activación o dominancia) y mantenían estables las demás, de forma de poder evaluar el rol independiente de cada una sobre los procesos de comprensión y recuperación (i.e. valencia positiva vs. negativa, activación y dominancia estable en experimento 1). Resultados: los resultados mostraron que la valencia tiene un efecto sobre la comprensión de textos, con mejor desempeño en condiciones de inducción emocional positiva que en la negativa. Por su parte, la activación ocupa un rol central en los procesos de memoria de forma independiente a otras dimensiones emocionales, siendo mayor la recuperación en estados de activación alta. Por último, la dominancia en sí misma no mostró tener efectos significativos. Conclusiones: los resultados permiten inferir que la valencia del estado emocional se vincula mayormente con procesos de razonamiento e inducción mientras que la activación se asocia a cambios en los procesos de almacenamiento y recuperación de la información.

Abstract background the existence of specific effects of emotion on text comprehension in adults has been experimentally verified. However, there is no information regarding adolescents, which is relevant for the design of interventions. Objective: this research study aims to assess whether dimensionally conceptualized emotional states (valence, arousal and dominance) affect the comprehension and retrieval of written texts in adolescents. Method: following instrument validation, three experiments (n = 468) were performed. They consisted in inducing emotions which differed in one dimension (valence, arousal or dominance) and kept others the same, in order to assess the role of each dimension on comprehension and retrieval processes (i.e., positive vs. negative valence; stable arousal and dominance in experiment 1). Results: the results indicate that valence has an impact on text comprehension and shows a better performance in positive than negative emotional states. On the other hand, activation occupies a central role in memory processes independently of other emotional dimensions, with higher performance in high activation states. Finally, dominance did not show any significant effect. Conclusions: the results suggest that the valence of emotional states is mostly related to reasoning and induction processes, while activation is associated with changes in information storage and retrieval processes.

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La resolución de problemas aritméticos es una actividad cognitiva compleja, de particular dificultad para niños y niñas, que implica poder identificar los componentes relevantes, las relaciones entre ellos y poder llevar a cabo los cómputos necesarios. Distintos estudios han buscado las variables predictoras de esta capacidad, centrándose en uno de dos aspectos: la competencia matemática del niño/a o su comprensión de texto. El propósito del presente trabajo consistió en estudiar si la incidencia de uno u otro sobre la resolución de problemas en niños y niñas de 4 y 5 años se modifica por la inclusión simultánea de ambos en un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. A su vez, existe amplia evidencia que sugiere que habilidades de dominio general, como la memoria de trabajo, influyen significativamente sobre la capacidad matemática y de comprensión de texto de los sujetos. Por este motivo, se estudió, adicionalmente, la presencia de un efecto indirecto de la memoria de trabajo verbal y visoespacial y del conocimiento previo sobre la resolución de problemas aritméticos, mediado por las otras dos habilidades. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que, a esta edad, solo la habilidad matemática tiene un efecto directo significativo sobre la resolución de problemas, y la memoria de trabajo, tanto visual como verbal, un efecto indirecto. Asimismo, se observó que ambos componentes de la memoria de trabajo se vinculan con la capacidad matemática, pero sólo la verbal con la comprensión de texto. Por otro lado, el conocimiento previo sólo parece vincularse con la comprensión

The resolution of arithmetic word problems is a complex cognitive activity which requires the subject to identify the relevant elements, the relationships between them and to be able to carry out the necessary computations. Different studies have searched for predictive variables of this capacity, focusing on one of two aspects: the child's mathematical competence or his or her text comprehension. The purpose of the present work was to study if the incidence of one or the other on the resolution of arithmetic problems in children of 4 and 5 years of age is modified by the simultaneous inclusion of both in a structural equation model (SEM). Additionally, there is ample evidence to suggest that general domain abilities, such as working memory, significantly influence the subject's mathematical and comprehension capacity. That is why we also studied the presence of an indirect effect of verbal and visuospatial working memory, as well as the child's previous knowledge, on the resolution of arithmetic problems, mediated by the other two skills. The results suggest that, at this age, only mathematical ability has a significant direct effect on the resolution of problems, and that working memory, both visual and verbal, have an indirect effect over it. Likewise, both components of working memory are linked with mathematical ability, but only verbal working memory with text comprehension. On the other hand, prior knowledge seems to be associated with text comprehension

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A Prova de Compreensão de Texto da Bateria PROLEC (PROLEC-T), amplamente utilizada no Brasil, apresenta amostra limitada e apenas análises descritivas dos escores. Objetivos: conhecer a estrutura interna (adequação dos itens via Teoria de Resposta ao Item) e os índices de validade externa (concorrente) da referida prova. Método: estudo das respostas de 457 alunos (49,7% meninos) do 2º ao 5º ano, aleatoriamente selecionados em 77 salas de aula de oito escolas estaduais, ao PROLEC-T e a três testes de leitura. Resultados: a prova apresenta baixo nível de dificuldade e pouca variabilidade de escores, evidenciando validade interna não satisfatória. Mostra também limitações em relação à validade concorrente, uma vez que as correlações entre os seus escores e o ano escolar, a idade da criança e as notas finais na disciplina Língua Portuguesa foram fracas, embora tenham sido medianas com as medidas de leitura. Conclusão: Em sua forma atual, o PROLEC-T parece ser adequada apenas para uma avaliação informal de crianças com dificuldade de leitura. No entanto, caso seja reformulada, sugere-se a substituição de seus textos por histórias inéditas, em ordem crescente de dificuldade, com apenas perguntas inferenciais.

The Text Comprehension task (PROLEC-T) of the PROLEC Battery of Evaluation of Reading Processes, widely used in Brazil, has a limited sample and only descriptive analyses. Purpose: verify the internal structure (via the Item Response Theory) and external (concurrent) validity indices of the test. Methods: study of 457 student's responses (49.7% boys), from 2nd to 5th year randomly selected in 77 classrooms in eight state schools, to the PROLEC-T and three reading tests. Results: PROLEC-T has a low level of difficulty and low variability of scores, indicating unsatisfactory internal validity. It also shows limitations on the concurrent validity, since the correlations were weak between its scores and the school year, age of the child and his or her final grades in Portuguese, in spite of being moderate with reading measures. Conclusion: The test seems to be only suitable for an informal assessment of children with reading difficulties. However, if reformulated, it is suggested to replace the current texts for unpublished stories, increasing order of difficulty, and questions with only inferential questions.

La prueba de Comprensión de textos de la Batería de Evaluación de los Procesos Lectores PROLEC (PROLEC-T), ampliamente utilizada en Brasil, tiene una muestra limitada y sólo el análisis descriptivo. Objetivo: conocer la estructura interna (adaptación de las cuestiones a través de la Teoría de Respuesta al Ítem) y los índices de validez externa (concurrentes) de esa prueba. Método: estudio de respuestas de 457 alumnos (49.7% de chicos) del 2º al 5º grado de la primaria, aleatoriamente seleccionados en 77 aulas de ocho escuelas públicas del Estado, a el PROLEC-T y tres pruebas de lectura. Resultados: La prueba tiene un conjunto de dificultad bajo y una baja variabilidad de las puntuaciones, lo que indica la validad interna no satisfactoria. También muestra limitaciones en la validad concurrente, ya que las correlaciones eran débiles con el año escolar, la edad del niño y con las notas finales en la asignatura Lengua Portuguesa, aunque hayan presentado mediana con las medidas de lectura. Conclusión: el establecimiento de normas para la PROLEC-T no es justificable. De esta manera, parece ser sólo adecuado para una evaluación informal de los niños con dificultades de lectura. Se sugiere la sustitución de los textos por historias inéditas, seguidas solamente de preguntas inferenciales, y orden crecente de dificultad de los textos.

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El presente trabajo describe un conjunto de investigaciones en las que se indagan las relaciones entre funciones ejecutivas y comprensión de textos. Se revisan específicamente de qué forma se asocian los procesos de actualización e inhibición con la construcción de un significado global del texto por parte del lector en un contexto determinado. Se seleccionaron investigaciones a través de las base de datos Redalyc, Scielo, Pepsic y Dialnet, bajos los descriptores "funciones ejecutivas" y "comprensión lectora". El corpus de investigaciones revisado no afirma en todos los casos que la inhibición sea discriminante de la comprensión exitosa. La actualización, en cambio, parece ser un buen predictor de la comprensión lectora en todos los trabajos revisados. Se puntualiza que los instrumentos diversos con que se han indagado ambas funciones ejecutivas limitan la comparación de resultados. Se propone para futuros estudios, realizar evaluaciones con similares instrumentos que permitan arribar a resultados comparables que sean la base para la evaluación y la intervención en comprensión de textos

The present work describes a group of investigations inquiring into the relationships between executive functions and text comprehension. Specifically, it is reviewed the way in which updating and inhibition processes are associated with the construction of global meaning in text by a reader in a certain context. The investigations were selected through Redalyc, Scielo, Pepsic and Dialnet databases, under the descriptors executive functions and reading comprehension. The reviewed investigations does not assert in all cases that inhibition is discriminant for succesful comprehension. Updating, however, seems to be a good predictor for reading comprehension in all of the surveyed works. It is stressed that the diverse instruments with which both executive functions have been analysed limit result comparison. For future studies, evaluations with similar instruments are proposed, so as to allow the obtaining of comparable results, which can in turn serve as a basis for evaluation and intervention in text comprehension.

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RESUMO Investigou-se o efeito da leitura dialógica - leitura em voz alta intercalada com perguntas e feedback baseados em dimensões temáticas (funções) da narrativa - sobre a compreensão de contos dos Irmãos Grimm. Vinte e dois contos foram lidos individualmente a três crianças, sendo duas com oito anos de idade e uma com treze, de forma simples (sem intervenções adicionais) e dialógica, em um delineamento de linha de base múltipla por participante. A compreensão foi avaliada por meio da porcentagem de eventos do enredo e funções da narrativa verbalizadas em tarefas de reconto. A correspondência entre as histórias e os recontos foi superior na condição Leitura Dialógica, especialmente para funções narrativas. Discute-se o papel das perguntas, do reforçamento diferencial e do texto nos efeitos encontrados.

ABSTRACT We investigated the effects of dialogic reading - reading aloud interspersed with questions and feedback based on narrative thematic dimensions (functions) - on the comprehension of brother Grimm’s tales. Twenty-two tales were read individually to three children (aged 8, 8 and 13 years), in a baseline condition (Straight reading) and intervention (Dialogic reading), using multiple baseline design across participants. Comprehension was assessed through percentage of story events and narrative functions verbalized during retelling tasks. Correspondence between tales and retelling was higher under the Dialogic Reading condition, especially for narrative functions. The role of questions, differential reinforcement and text are discussed.

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El artículo describe las prácticas educativas de profesores chilenos en clases de comprensión de textos en educación primaria, selecciónadas del sistema de evaluación docente. Utilizando un sistema de análisis del discurso en el aula, se segmentó cada una de las tareas que fueron desplegadas en ellas. Esto permitió describir la organización de la enseñanza, identificando patrones asociados a cada fase de la lectura. Se observaron algunas diferencias de acuerdo a la calificación otorgada a los profesores, siendo los profesores calificados como "competentes" quienes organizaron de manera más coherente las actividades, incluyendo mayores acciónes de cierre. No obstante, se desempeñaron de manera similar al resto de los profesores en la fase during-reading, no logrando desplegar acciónes tendientes a supervisar la comprensión.

The article describes Chilean teacherseducational practice in primary education reading comprehension classes, selected from the Chilean teacher evaluation system. Each task deployed were segmented using a classroom discourse analysis system. This allowed to describe the organization of teaching, identifying patterns associated with each reading phase. Some differences according to the rating of teachers were observed; teachers qualified as "competent" organized activities more consistently, including more closing actions. However, they performed similarly to the rest of the teachers in the during-reading phase, failing in deploying actions to monitoring comprehension.

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