RESUMO
Cacao seeds, Theobroma cacao, provide the basis for a ceremonially important Mesoamerican food. Past efforts to identify cacao in ceramics focused on highly decorative vessel forms associated with elite ceremonial contexts, creating assumptions as to how cacao was distributed and who could access it. This study examines 54 archaeological ceramic sherds from El Pilar (Belize/Guatemala) of Late Classic (600 to 900 CE) residential and civic contexts representing a cross-section of ancient Maya inhabitants. Identification of cacao in ancient sherds has depended on the general presence of theobromine; we used the discrete presence of theophylline, a unique key biomarker for cacao in the region. Analysis was done by grinding off all outside surfaces to reduce contamination, pulverizing the inner clay matrix, extracting absorbed molecules, and concentrating the extractions. In order to obtain especially high selectivity and low limits of detection, our study utilized the technique of resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization coupled with laser-desorption jet-cooling mass spectrometry. This technique isolates molecules in the cold gas phase where they can be selectively ionized through a resonant two-photon process. Of the sherds analyzed, 30 samples (56%) were found to contain significant amounts of theophylline and thus test positive for cacao. Importantly, cacao is present in all contexts, common to all Maya residents near and far from centers.
Assuntos
Cacau , Belize , Cacau/anatomia & histologia , Cacau/história , Argila , Guatemala , História Antiga , Sementes/química , Teobromina/análise , Teobromina/história , Teofilina/análise , Teofilina/históriaRESUMO
Ecuador's economic history has been closely linked to Theobroma cacao L cultivation, and specifically to the native fine flavour Nacional cocoa variety. The original Nacional cocoa trees are presently in danger of extinction due to foreign germplasm introductions. In a previous work, a few non-introgressed Nacional types were identified as potential founders of the modern Ecuadorian cocoa population, but so far their origin could not be formally identified. In order to determine the putative centre of origin of Nacional and trace its domestication history, we used 80 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to analyse the relationships between these potential Nacional founders and 169 wild and cultivated cocoa accessions from South and Central America. The highest genetic similarity was observed between the Nacional pool and some wild genotypes from the southern Amazonian region of Ecuador, sampled along the Yacuambi, Nangaritza and Zamora rivers in Zamora Chinchipe province. This result was confirmed by a parentage analysis. Based on our results and on data about pre-Columbian civilization and Spanish colonization history of Ecuador, we determined, for the first time, the possible centre of origin and migration events of the Nacional variety from the Amazonian area until its arrival in the coastal provinces. As large unexplored forest areas still exist in the southern part of the Ecuadorian Amazonian region, our findings could provide clues as to where precious new genetic resources could be collected, and subsequently used to improve the flavour and disease resistance of modern Ecuadorian cocoa varieties.
Assuntos
Evolução Biológica , Cacau/genética , Cacau/história , Produtos Agrícolas/genética , Produtos Agrícolas/história , Odorantes/análise , Alelos , Ecótipo , Equador , Loci Gênicos/genética , Marcadores Genéticos , Variação Genética , Genótipo , Geografia , História do Século XV , História do Século XIX , História Antiga , Repetições de Microssatélites/genéticaRESUMO
Chemical analyses of residues extracted from pottery vessels from Puerto Escondido in what is now Honduras show that cacao beverages were being made there before 1000 B.C., extending the confirmed use of cacao back at least 500 years. The famous chocolate beverage served on special occasions in later times in Mesoamerica, especially by elites, was made from cacao seeds. The earliest cacao beverages consumed at Puerto Escondido were likely produced by fermenting the sweet pulp surrounding the seeds.
Assuntos
Bebidas/história , Cacau/história , Bebidas Alcoólicas/história , Arqueologia , Cacau/química , Cafeína/análise , Cerâmica/história , Desenho de Equipamento , Fermentação , Embalagem de Alimentos/história , Cromatografia Gasosa-Espectrometria de Massas , História Antiga , Honduras , Humanos , Indígenas Centro-Americanos/história , Teobromina/análiseRESUMO
The Maya archaeological site at Colha in northern Belize, Central America, has yielded several spouted ceramic vessels that contain residues from the preparation of food and beverages. Here we analyse dry residue samples by using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to atmospheric-pressure chemical-ionization mass spectrometry, and show that chocolate (Theobroma cacao) was consumed by the Preclassic Maya as early as 600 bc, pushing back the earliest chemical evidence of cacao use by some 1,000 years. Our application of this new and highly sensitive analytical technique could be extended to the identification of other ancient foods and beverages.
Assuntos
Bebidas/história , Cacau/história , Arqueologia/métodos , Belize , Cacau/química , Cerâmica/história , Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Pressão , História Antiga , Espectrometria de Massas , Teobromina/análiseAssuntos
Bebidas Alcoólicas , Cultura , Problemas Sociais , Bebidas Alcoólicas/economia , Bebidas Alcoólicas/história , Antropologia Cultural/história , Bebidas/economia , Bebidas/história , Cacau/economia , Cacau/história , Cacau/fisiologia , Café/economia , Café/história , Café/fisiologia , Cuba/etnologia , Ingestão de Líquidos/fisiologia , Alimentos/economia , Alimentos/história , Frutas/economia , Frutas/história , Frutas/fisiologia , História do Século XIX , Plantas Medicinais/fisiologia , Religião e Medicina , Saccharum/fisiologia , Problemas Sociais/economia , Problemas Sociais/etnologia , Problemas Sociais/história , Problemas Sociais/legislação & jurisprudência , Problemas Sociais/psicologiaAssuntos
Botânica , Cacau , Economia , Etnobotânica , Etnofarmacologia , Jardinagem , Homeopatia , Materia Medica , Farmacognosia , Plantas Comestíveis , Plantas Medicinais , Botânica/história , Cacau/história , Economia/história , Inglaterra , Etnobotânica/história , Etnofarmacologia/história , Jardinagem/história , História do Século XVI , História do Século XVII , História do Século XVIII , Homeopatia/história , Jamaica , Londres , Materia Medica/história , Farmacognosia/históriaRESUMO
The medicinal use of cacao, or chocolate, both as a primary remedy and as a vehicle to deliver other medicines, originated in the New World and diffused to Europe in the mid 1500s. These practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec). The word cacao is derived from Olmec and the subsequent Mayan languages (kakaw); the chocolate-related term cacahuatl is Nahuatl (Aztec language), derived from Olmec/Mayan etymology. Early colonial era documents included instructions for the medicinal use of cacao. The Badianus Codex (1552) noted the use of cacao flowers to treat fatigue, whereas the Florentine Codex (1590) offered a prescription of cacao beans, maize and the herb tlacoxochitl (Calliandra anomala) to alleviate fever and panting of breath and to treat the faint of heart. Subsequent 16th to early 20th century manuscripts produced in Europe and New Spain revealed >100 medicinal uses for cacao/chocolate. Three consistent roles can be identified: 1) to treat emaciated patients to gain weight; 2) to stimulate nervous systems of apathetic, exhausted or feeble patients; and 3) to improve digestion and elimination where cacao/chocolate countered the effects of stagnant or weak stomachs, stimulated kidneys and improved bowel function. Additional medical complaints treated with chocolate/cacao have included anemia, poor appetite, mental fatigue, poor breast milk production, consumption/tuberculosis, fever, gout, kidney stones, reduced longevity and poor sexual appetite/low virility. Chocolate paste was a medium used to administer drugs and to counter the taste of bitter pharmacological additives. In addition to cacao beans, preparations of cacao bark, oil (cacao butter), leaves and flowers have been used to treat burns, bowel dysfunction, cuts and skin irritations.
Assuntos
Cacau/história , Cacau/uso terapêutico , América Central , Europa (Continente) , Feminino , História do Século XVI , História do Século XVII , História do Século XVIII , História do Século XIX , História do Século XX , Humanos , Masculino , FitoterapiaRESUMO
Although there is an increasing number of historical studies on the effects of the discovery of America on Europe, there are still several gaps, specially on the benefits that Europe obtained from indigenous American cultures. This work enlightens the adoption by European cultures, of some foods stuffs commonly used by the inhabitants of the New World, that had great importance for European nutrition. Among these, corn, cacao, potatoes, tomatoes and pepper stand out. Some tropical fruits such as pineapples, eggfruits, cherimoyas, papaya and avocados are important. Spices such as cinnamon and vanilla must also be mentioned